Political Parties: Class 10 Civics Chapter 4 Hinglish mein

Kisi bhi election se kuch hafte pehle, bina newspaper khole tum bata sakte ho ki race mein kaun si parties hain. Unke flags rickshaws aur balconies par lehrate hain, unke gaane jeeps se goonjte hain, aur unke volunteers leaflets lekar tumhara darwaza khatkhatate hain. Zyaadatar citizens ke liye parties democracy ka woh hissa hain jo unhe sabse zyaada dikhta hai.

Is course mein parties pehle bhi kai baar aa chuki hain. Class 9 mein unhone elections lade aur governments banayi. Is book mein Chapter 1 mein unhone power share ki, Chapter 2 mein Union ko States se joda aur Chapter 3 mein social differences ko political demands mein badla. Ab hum khud parties ko padhenge, chhe sawaalon ke zariye:

1. Democracy ko parties ki zaroorat hi kyun hai?
2. Ek democracy ko kitni parties chahiye?
3. India mein kaun si parties national parties maani jaati hain?
4. State parties kya hain, aur woh kyun badhi hain?
5. Parties mein kya gadbad ho rahi hai?
6. Unhe behtar banane ke liye kya kiya ja sakta hai?

4.1 Humein political parties ki zaroorat kyun hai?

Das logon se poocho ki woh political parties ke baare mein kya sochte hain, to zyaadatar shikayat karenge. Unhe corruption, shor-sharabe wale jhagdon aur toote waadon se problem hai, ya is baat se ki parties logon ko rival camps mein baant deti hain. Phir bhi unhi logon se kisi party ka naam poocho, to lagbhag sab kai naam bata denge. Parties democracy ki sabse jaani-maani aur sabse kam pasand ki jaane wali institutions mein se hain.

Isse ek jaayaz sawaal uthta hai. Agar parties itni napasand hain, to lagbhag har desh mein, chhota ho ya bada, ameer ho ya gareeb, woh kyun hain? Kya democracy unke bina chal sakti hai? Shuru karte hain is baat se ki party hoti kya hai.

4.1.1 Matlab

Political party (राजनीतिक दल) logon ka ek organised group hai jo desh kaise chalna chahiye, is baare mein milte-julte broad ideas rakhta hai. Woh elections jeetne ki koshish karte hain taaki government bana sakein aur un ideas ko policy mein badal sakein.

Society ke liye kya achha hai, is par log asehmat hote hain, isliye parties bhi asehmat hoti hain. Socho ek shehar mein paani ki kami hai. Ek party ek bade naye dam ka waada kar sakti hai. Doosri leak hoti pipes theek karne aur baarish ka paani jama karne ka waada kar sakti hai. Teesri gareeb gharon ke paani ke bill kam karna chahti hai. Har party voters ko yakeen dilane ki koshish karti hai ki uska plan shehar ke liye sabse achha hai, aur jise sabse zyaada support milta hai use woh plan laagu karne ka mauka milta hai.

Party shabd khud ek clue hai: yeh part se aaya hai. Party society ke ek part ke liye bolti hai, ek set of views aur interests ke liye, kabhi bhi sabke liye ek saath nahi. Uske pakke supporters partisans kehlate hain, aur unka attitude, partisanship, ka matlab hai ek side lena aur kisi issue ko doosri side se dekhna mushkil paana.

Har party teen tarah ke logon se banti hai, jaise Fig. 4.1 dikhata hai. Beech mein leaders hote hain, jo party ki line tay karte hain aur aksar top posts ke liye ladte hain. Unke aas-paas active members hote hain, jo local units mein posts sambhalte hain, meetings organise karte hain aur election ke time campaign karte hain. Bahar ki taraf followers hote hain, aam citizens jo party ko support karte hain aur use vote dete hain lekin uske kaam mein kam hissa lete hain.

4.1.2 Functions

Seedhi baat mein, party ka maqsad apne logon ko public office tak pahunchana aur usse milne wali power ka istemaal karna hai. Asal mein iske liye saat kaam karne padte hain, jo Fig. 4.2 mein dikhaye gaye hain.

1. Woh elections ladti hain. Ballot par kaun se naam jaayenge, yeh kaun tay karta hai? India mein aksar party ke senior leaders ya ek chhoti committee ‘tickets’ baant-te hain. USA mein party ke apne members aur supporters primaries mein vote karke chunte hain, aur zyaada desh yeh tareeka apna rahe hain. Dono tarah se, democracy mein lagbhag har serious candidate kisi party ki taraf se khada hota hai.
2. Woh policies saamne rakhti hain. Manifesto ko ek menu ki tarah socho. Crores citizens ki crores raayein hoti hain, jin par koi government ek-ek karke kaam nahi kar sakti. Party ek hi disha mein jaane wali raayon ko ek programme mein jod deti hai, aur phir voters kuch menus mein se chunte hain. Jo bhi party jeete, uska menu government ka starting point ban jaata hai.
3. Woh laws banati hain. Kaagaz par legislature laws banati hai; asal mein parties tay karti hain ki woh kaise vote karegi. Legislators aksar waise hi vote karte hain jaise unki party leadership kehti hai, un bills par bhi jin par unhe mann hi mann shak ho, isliye majority wali party aksar jo laws chahe pass kar leti hai.
4. Woh governments banati aur chalati hain. Party ek training ground ki tarah kaam karti hai. Young members organise karna, bolna aur negotiate karna seekhte hain, aur kaamyaab log aage badhkar party ko lead karte hain. Jab party jeetti hai, to yahi log ministers bante hain jo bade faisle lete hain.
5. Woh opposition ka role nibhati hain. Election haarne se party khaali nahi baith jaati. House mein woh ministers se sawaal poochti hai aur bills par debate karti hai; bahar woh ruling party ki naakaamiyon ke khilaaf rallies karti hai. Isse government chaukanna rehti hai.
6. Woh public opinion ko shape karti hain. Jab party koi issue uthati hai, jaise badhti keematein ya paani ki kami, to uske workers use har gali tak le jaate hain. Uske student, women's, farmers' aur workers' wings use colleges, gharon, kheton aur factories tak pahunchate hain. Dheere-dheere bahut log us issue ko waise hi dekhne lagte hain jaise party use pesh karti hai.
7. Woh logon ko government se jodti hain. Socho kisi ka ration card kho gaya hai, pension nahi aayi hai ya hand pump toota hai. Aisi problem wale citizen ko aksar kisi official ke mukaable local party worker tak pahunchna aasaan lagta hai. In problems mein madad karke party ko loyalty milti hai, aur inhe nazarandaaz karne se uske votes kam ho sakte hain.

4.1.3 Zaroorat

Functions ki list pehle se hi jawab ki taraf ishaara karti hai: humein parties chahiye kyunki kisi ko to yeh kaam karne hain. Ek tez test yeh hai ki bina kisi party ke election ki kalpana karo.

Ek aise Lok Sabha election ki kalpana karo jismein koi party nahi, sirf 543 independents hain. Jab results aate hain, to kisi ko nahi pata ki Prime Minister kaun banega: jeetne walon ko shuru se mol-bhaav karna padega, aur har bill par phir se mol-bhaav. Campaign ke dauraan candidates apne constituencies ko sadak ya college ka waada kar sakte the, lekin naye tax ya foreign policy ka nahi, kyunki koi akela member use poora nahi kar sakta. Voters apne MP ko local kaam ke liye inaam ya saza de sakte the. Lekin poore desh ko chalane ke liye kisi ko zimmedaar thehraya nahi ja sakta tha.

Real life se bhi saboot milta hai. Kai States panchayat elections karate hain jinmein candidates party tickets par khade nahi ho sakte. Aisa election dekho to aksar gaon do ya teen groups ke peeche bant jaata hai, aur har group apna set, ya panel, of candidates support karta hai. Parties hata do, to log unhe kisi aur naam se phir bana lete hain.

Political scientists aur aage jaakar parties ko modern democracy ki necessary condition kehte hain. Wajah hai size. Ek gaon ki meeting aamne-saamne baith kar faisle le sakti hai. 140 crore se zyaada logon wale desh ko elected representatives ke zariye hi chalana padta hai, aur akele representatives teen gaps chhod dete hain. Kisi ko millions logon ki raayein jama karke unhe proposals mein badalna hoga. Kisi ko saikdon alag-alag representatives ko ek aisi team mein jodna hoga jo government chala sake aur zimmedaar thehrayi ja sake. Aur kisi ko government ki policies ka bachaav karne, ya unhe challenge karne, ke liye taiyaar rehna hoga. Parties yeh teeno gaps bharti hain. Isiliye woh representative democracy ke saath-saath badhi hain aur har size aur umar ki democracies mein milti hain.

4.2 Humare paas kitni parties honi chahiye?

Democracy mein party shuru karne ke liye kisi ki permission nahi chahiye. Jo citizens party banana chahte hain, woh Representation of the People Act, 1951 ke under registration ke liye Election Commission of India (ECI) ko apply karte hain. Register karna aasaan hai, isliye list lambi hai. Tumhari textbook kehti hai ki 750 se zyaada parties registered hain, lekin tab se yeh sankhya badh gayi hai. Mid-2025 mein ECI ki list mein 2,854 registered parties thi jo recognised nahi thi. August aur September 2025 mein usne inmein se 808 ko hata diya kyunki unhone chhe saal se koi election nahi lada tha.

Lekin lambi list ka matlab asli competition nahi hai. Zyaadatar registered parties kabhi koi seat nahi jeetti, aur ek aam election mein sirf kuch hi parties ko government banane ki koi ummeed hoti hai. Isliye asli baat yeh hai ki kitni parties ke paas power ka sachcha mauka hai. Desh teen broad patterns mein aate hain, jinmein se har ek ko party system (दलीय व्यवस्था) kehte hain.

4.2.1 One-party system

One-party system mein sirf ek party power mein reh sakti hai, chahe law doosri parties ke baare mein kuch bhi kahe. China iska sabse jaana-maana example hai. Communist Party of China government chalati hai, aur jo aath chhoti parties legally maujood hain unhe uski leadership maanni padti hai, isliye woh kabhi power ke liye compete nahi karti. Wahan elections yeh nahi badal sakte ki raaj kaun karega, aur isi wajah se one-party system democracy ke test mein fail ho jaata hai. Voters ki asli aawaaz ke liye kam se kam do parties ko compete karne ki aazaadi honi chahiye, aur har ek ke paas jeetne ka mauka hona chahiye.

4.2.2 Two-party system

Kuch deshon mein ballot par bahut parties hoti hain lekin asli contenders sirf do hote hain. Power in do ke beech aati-jaati rehti hai, jabki baaki zyaada se zyaada kuch seats jeetti hain. Ise two-party system kehte hain. United States mein yeh do Democrats aur Republicans hain; United Kingdom mein Conservative aur Labour parties.

4.2.3 Multiparty system

Multiparty system woh hai jismein teen ya usse zyaada parties sach mein power jeet sakti hain, akele ya partners ke saath. India iska saaf example hai. Iski kai governments coalition governments rahi hain, jo kai parties ne milkar banayi. Parties aksar polling day se pehle haath mila leti hain, aur tay karti hain ki election ek group ki tarah ladenge aur jeetne par power share karenge. Aise group ko alliance ya front (गठबंधन) kehte hain.11Tumhari textbook ka example 2004 ka Lok Sabha election hai. Usmein teen bade alliances the: Left Front, NDA (National Democratic Alliance) aur UPA (United Progressive Alliance).

Coalitions ki reputation mili-juli hai. Critics kehte hain ki multiparty system mein gadbad ho sakti hai: kai partners ko khush rakhna padta hai, aur ek partner ke nikal jaane par government gir sakti hai. Supporters jawab dete hain ki isse kahin zyaada interests, regions aur opinions ko government mein aawaaz milti hai. Fig. 4.4 teeno systems ko saath-saath rakhta hai.

Teeno systems ko rank karne ka mann karta hai, lekin ranking se asli baat chhoot jaati hai. Koi bhi desh apna party system kisi menu se nahi chunta. Yeh society ki banawat se nikalta hai, uske regional, religious, caste aur language divisions se. Yeh desh ke political history aur votes ginne ke uske rules se bhi nikalta hai.22Jahan har seat par sabse zyaada votes wala candidate jeetta hai, jaise India, UK aur USA mein, wahan badi parties kam hone ka jhukaav hota hai; jahan parties ko unke votes ke anupaat mein seats milti hain, wahan zyaada hoti hain. Yeh ek tendency hai, law nahi: India mein apni regional diversity ki wajah se bahut parties hain. Inmein se kuch bhi raaton-raat nahi badla ja sakta.

India ka multiparty system uske size aur vividhta ko dikhata hai: koi do ya teen parties uske saare regions, languages aur communities ko ek saath nahi sambhal sakti. Har desh ko wahi system milta hai jo uske apne halaat banate hain. Koi universal winner nahi hai.

4.3 National parties

Federal democracies mein aksar do tarah ki parties hoti hain. Kuch sirf federation ki ek unit mein hoti hain; doosri kai units mein ya sab mein maujood hoti hain. India bhi isi pattern par chalta hai. National party ki kai States mein branches hoti hain. Uske bade faisle, jaise uska programme, uske alliances aur uska campaign plan, national leadership leti hai, aur State branches unhe maanti hain.

4.3.1 Recognised parties

Registration se party Election Commission ke records mein aa jaati hai, lekin isse kuch khaas privileges nahi milte. Jo parties polls mein asli support dikhati hain, unhe zyaada milta hai. Sabse jaana-maana hai reserved election symbol, jise party ke official candidates ke alaawa koi use nahi kar sakta, taaki voters EVM par unhe pehchaan sakein. In parties ko campaigns ke dauraan Doordarshan aur All India Radio par free broadcast time bhi milta hai. Inke candidates ko nomination file karne ke liye sirf ek proposer chahiye, aur yeh 40 tak ‘star campaigners’ ke naam de sakti hain. Jo parties qualify karti hain unhe recognised parties (मान्यता प्राप्त दल) kehte hain.

Commission Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968 ke under parties ko unke votes aur seats ke basis par recognise karta hai. Tumhari textbook jo rule deti hai woh main raasta hai, aur board-exam ke answers mein wahi expect kiya jaata hai:

Textbook wala raasta akela raasta nahi hai. Party sirf seats ke basis par, bade vote share ke basis par, ya kai States mein recognition ke basis par bhi qualify kar sakti hai, jaise Table 4.3 dikhata hai. Elections ke baad recognition ka review hota hai, isliye parties ise paa bhi sakti hain aur kho bhi sakti hain.

4.3.2 India ki national parties

Election Commission ke 10 April 2023 ke order ke hisaab se chhe parties national parties ke roop mein recognised hain. Us order ne Aam Aadmi Party ko joda. Usne All India Trinamool Congress, Communist Party of India aur Nationalist Congress Party se national status wapas le liya, aur jahan woh qualify karti thi wahan unka State-party status bana raha. 2024 aur 2025 ki Commission ki baad ki publications mein bhi yahi chhe parties hain.33Elections ke baad recognition ka review hota hai, isliye current list Election Commission ki website, eci.gov.in, par check karo.

Table 4.4 unhe alphabetical order mein dikhata hai. ‘Ideas’ column batata hai ki har party apne aims ko khud kaise describe karti hai; yeh kisi party par koi judgement nahi hai.

• AAP ne Delhi mein (2013–14 mein thode time ke liye, phir 2015 se 2025 tak) aur Punjab mein (2022 se) governments banayi. Delhi, Goa, Gujarat aur Punjab mein State party ke roop mein recognise hone ke baad yeh 2023 mein national party bani.
• BSP ka main base Uttar Pradesh mein hai, jahan isne 1995 aur 2012 ke beech chaar baar State government banayi.
• BJP ne 1998–2004 ki National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government ko lead kiya aur 2014 se Centre mein NDA government ko lead kar rahi hai. Isne 2014 aur 2019 mein akele Lok Sabha majority jeeti; 2024 mein yeh sabse badi party thi lekin majority se peeche reh gayi.
• CPI(M) ki zyaadatar taakat Kerala, West Bengal aur Tripura se aati hai. Isne West Bengal ki Left Front government ko bina ruke 34 saal (1977–2011) lead kiya.
• INC ne Independence ke baad zyaadatar saalon mein Union government ko lead kiya: 1947–77, 1980–89, 1991–96, aur 2004–14 mein United Progressive Alliance ke head ke roop mein. 2024 mein yeh opposition ki sabse badi party bani.
• NPP North-East ki pehli party thi jise national party ke roop mein recognise kiya gaya (2019). Yeh 2018 se Meghalaya ki government ko lead kar rahi hai.

4.4 State parties

Election Commission ki State parties ki list uski national parties ki list se kahin lambi hai, aur ismein India ki zyaadatar doosri badi parties aati hain. Inke liye roz ka naam ‘regional party’ kuch par doosron se zyaada fit baithta hai. Asom Gana Parishad, jo Assam movement se nikli, aur Tamil Nadu ki Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam apni politics ek State ki identity, language aur interests ke aas-paas banati hain. Doosron ki ambitions badi hain. Janata Dal (United) ne kai States mein elections lade hain, aur All India Trinamool Congress aur Nationalist Congress Party ke paas 2023 tak national status tha. Unka base regional hai; unka outlook nahi.

Fig. 4.6 ka chart poori kahani batata hai. 1989 se 2009 tak har Lok Sabha election mein sabse badi party majority se peeche reh gayi, isliye jo bhi government banata use partners chahiye the, aur State parties sabse seedhe partners thi. Iske result mein, 1996 se lagbhag har badi State party kuch time ke liye Centre mein coalition ka hissa rahi hai. Unke badhne se Parliament Independence ke baad ke pehle dashakon ke mukaable kahin zyaada vividh ho gayi hai. Bahut se political scientists kehte hain ki isse federalism aur democracy gehre hue hain, kyunki ab States ki national faislon mein seedhi aawaaz hai.

4.5 Political parties ke challenges

Jab sadkein nahi banti, keematein badhti hain ya koi scandal saamne aata hai, to ungli aksar parties par uthti hai. Parties se naraazgi poori democratic duniya mein aam hai, aur India mein bhi hai. Zyaadatar shikayatein chaar headings mein aati hain, jo Fig. 4.7 mein dikhayi gayi hain. Inmein se har ek party ki un kaamon ko karne ki kshamata kamzor karti hai jo Section 4.1.2 mein diye gaye hain.

4.5.1 Internal democracy ki kami

Kisi district town mein ek party member ki kalpana karo. Woh apni membership fee bharti hai, lekin usne kabhi party election mein vote nahi diya, kyunki saalon se koi election hua hi nahi. Apni party ki candidate list ka pata use television se chalta hai. Jab woh kisi faisle par aitraaz karti hai, to use kaha jaata hai ki line mein raho ya chali jao. Internal democracy (आंतरिक लोकतंत्र) ki kami aisi dikhti hai.

Yeh pattern poori duniya mein aam hai. Records, meetings ya elections ke bina members ke haath mein koi lever nahi hota, isliye mutthi bhar log party ke naam par har faisla lete hain. Unse asehmat hona risky ho jaata hai, aur leader ko khush rakhna upar jaane ka sabse pakka raasta ban jaata hai.

4.5.2 Dynastic succession

Poocho ki ab se bees saal baad party ko kaun lead karega. Jis party mein khule internal elections hote hain, wahan koi bhi kaabil worker ho sakta hai. Lekin bahut si parties mein sachcha jawab hai ‘leader ki family ka koi’. Yeh dynastic succession (वंशवाद) hai. Yeh kamzor internal democracy se nikalta hai: jahan promotion ke koi fair rules nahi hote, wahan upar baithe log apne rishtedaaron ko aage badha sakte hain.

Isse do nuksaan hote hain. Jo members saalon se party ke liye kaam kar rahe hain, unhe nazarandaaz kar diya jaata hai. Aur kam experience ya kam public support wale log oonche pad par pahunch sakte hain. Yeh pattern sirf India ka nahi hai; yeh kai democracies mein dikhta hai, puraani bhi aur nayi bhi.

4.5.3 Money aur muscle power

Elections mehenge hote hain, aur jeetne ka pressure shortcuts ko nyota deta hai. Ek mehnati worker aur ek ameer businessman mein se chunne wali party us insaan ko chun sakti hai jo campaign ka kharcha utha sake. Donors shayad hi kuch bina maange dete hain: party ko fund karne wali companies aur ameer log ummeed rakhte hain ki policy banate waqt unki baat suni jaaye. Aur criminal record wale candidate ko bhi ticket mil sakta hai agar local leaders ko lage ki woh votes dila sakta hai. Poori duniya mein democracy ki kadar karne wale log is baat se pareshaan hain ki bada paisa bahut zyaada influence khareed raha hai.

4.5.4 Meaningful choice ki kami

Ek aise restaurant ki kalpana karo jahan har dish ka swaad ek jaisa ho: chunna bekaar hoga. Bahut se observers ko chinta hai ki duniya ke bade hisse mein elections usi taraf ja rahe hain. Badi parties fundamentals par zyaada se zyaada sehmat hoti ja rahi hain aur details par aur is baat par compete karti hain ki kaun behtar deliver kar sakta hai; Britain ki do main parties ka example aksar diya jaata hai. India mein observers note karte hain ki 1990s se power mein rahi zyaadatar badi parties ne lagbhag milti-julti economic policies rakhi hain.

Isse jo voters bilkul alag raasta chahte hain, unke paas vote karne ke liye kuch khaas nahi bachta. Chehre bhi zyaada alag nahi hote, jab wahi leaders elections se pehle ek party se doosri party mein chale jaate hain.

4.6 Parties mein reform kaise ho sakta hai?

Parties ko reform karne mein ek pech hai. Jin logon ko koi bhi reform law pass karna hoga, woh khud party leaders hain. Voters leaders ke ek set ko hata sakte hain, lekin unki jagah aane wale bhi parties se hi aate hain. To agar koi party badlaav nahi chahti, to yeh samajhna mushkil hai ki use laagu kaun karega. Har democracy ke citizens is pech ka saamna karte hain. India ke ab tak ke jawab do groups mein aate hain: jo kadam uthaye ja chuke hain aur jo ideas abhi bhi table par hain.

4.6.1 Jo kadam uthaye ja chuke hain

Anti-defection law. Pehle elected MLAs aur MPs aaraam se party badal lete the, aksar minister ke post ya paise ke badle. Constitution ke 52nd Amendment (1985) ne is defection (दल-बदल) ko rokne ke liye Tenth Schedule joda. Maan lo koi member us party ko chhod deta hai jiske ticket par woh chuna gaya tha, ya House mein party ke instructions ke khilaaf vote karta hai. Us member ko disqualify kiya ja sakta hai aur uski seat ja sakti hai. Main exception hai House mein party ke do-tihaai members ke support wala merger; 91st Amendment (2003) ne ‘splits’ ke liye ek puraana exception hata diya.

1985 se defections kam hue hain. Lekin critics ek side effect ki taraf ishaara karte hain: party line se asehmat legislator ke paas ab vote se use dikhane ki bahut kam jagah hai.

Affidavits. Ab voters candidates ke baare mein 2002 se pehle ke mukaable kahin zyaada jaante hain. 2002 aur 2003 ke Supreme Court judgments ke baad se har candidate nomination ke saath ek affidavit (शपथपत्र) file karta hai. Ismein unki assets aur liabilities, educational qualifications aur pending criminal cases likhe hote hain, aur journalists aur citizens' groups har election mein inka analysis karte hain. Do kamzoriyan abhi bhi hain. Koi bhi har affidavit ko regularly verify nahi karta, haalaanki usmein jhooth bolna offence hai. Aur disclosure se money aur crime ka role saaf taur par kam nahi hua hai.

Party organisation aur accounts. Election Commission ne parties ko internal elections karane aur income-tax returns file karne ko bhi kaha hai. Kaagaz par woh yeh maanti hain. Critics kehte hain ki internal elections aksar bina muqaable wali formalities hote hain, isliye shak hai ki isse parties andar se zyaada democratic hui hain.

4.6.2 Suggestions jo abhi tak maane nahi gaye

• Parties ke internal affairs par ek law. Har party ko members ka register rakhna hoga aur apne constitution ka paalan karna hoga. Use internal disputes suljhaane ke liye ek independent body chahiye hogi, aur apne top posts ke liye khule elections.
• Women ke liye zyaada tickets. Parties ko apne lagbhag ek-tihaai tickets women ko dene honge, aur apni decision-making bodies mein women ke liye jagah reserve karni hogi.
• Elections ki State funding. Government parties ke election kharche ka kuch hissa uthayegi. Yeh cheezon ke roop mein de sakti hai, jaise vehicles, printing ya broadcast time, ya cash mein, pichhle election mein har party ko mile votes ke anupaat mein.

Parties ne ab tak yeh suggestions nahi maane hain. Agar maan bhi lein, to laws se sab kuch hal nahi hoga. Law party ko internal election karane par majboor kar sakta hai; woh us election ko sachcha banane par majboor nahi kar sakta. Zyaada regulation parties ko sirf rules se bachne ki nayi tricks sikha sakta hai. Aur kyunki parties legislature ko control karti hain, jo law unhe pasand nahi, uske pass hone ki ummeed hi kam hai.

4.6.3 Bahar se pressure, andar se badlaav

Laws akela lever nahi hain. Parties votes par react karti hain, isliye jo bhi cheez unhe dikhaye ki reform se votes milte hain, woh reform ke paksh mein kaam karti hai: petitions, media exposure, pressure groups aur movements ke campaigns, yahan tak ki peaceful protests bhi.

Doosra lever hai membership. Kinaare khade hokar parties ki aalochana karne se kam badalta hai; kisi party mein judkar andar se zor lagane se bahut kuch badal sakta hai. Democracies tab behtar hoti hain jab zyaada citizens hissa lete hain, aur achhe se hissa lete hain. Chapter 5 is idea ko aage le jaata hai.