Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation (Early Humans aur Civilisation ki Shuruaat): Class 9 Social Science Chapter 4 Hinglish mein

4.1 Writing se pehle aur baad

Socho, koi tumhari life ke baare mein kaise jaan sakta hai. Woh tumhara school report card, tumhari family ke phone messages ya tumhare Aadhaar card par likha naam padh sakta hai. Ab har likha hua shabd hata do. Jo bachta hai, woh hain cheezein: steel ka tiffin box, cricket bat, ek tooti chudi, tumhare ghar ki deewarein. Lagbhag poori human kahani ke liye hamare paas bas aisi cheezein hi evidence hain.

Yeh chapter kai million saal peeche le jaata hai, un kingdoms aur empires se bahut pehle jo tumne pichhli history lessons mein padhe. Raaste mein tum pehle tool-makers se miloge, logon ke peeche-peeche Africa se bahar aur poori duniya mein jaoge, hunters ko farmers bante dekhoge aur pehle cities tak pahunchoge. Chaar bade sawaal dhyaan mein rakho:

• Pehli civilisations se pehle log kaise rehte the?
• Writing ke bina woh ideas kaise share karte the aur apna gyaan aage kaise pahunchate the?
• Archaeology hamein aisa kya bata sakti hai jo koi book nahi bata sakti?
• Kya early civilisations ek doosre ke baare mein jaanti thi, aur woh kaise mili?

To jin logon ne koi writing nahi chhodi, unhe hum kaise study karte hain? Archaeology se: artefacts, haddiyon, buildings aur doosre material remains ko khod kar nikalna aur study karna. Aur 'writing se pehle' koi ek fixed date nahi hai. Kuch societies ne lagbhag 5,000 saal pehle likhna shuru kiya, jabki duniya ke kai hisson mein uske baad bhi hazaaron saal tak koi writing nahi thi.

Ek paheli dekho. Archaeologists ko hazaaron Harappan seals, pots aur chhoti tablets mili hain jin par signs bane hain. Kai signs cheezon ki chhoti tasveerein hain, jaise machhli, jar ya log, isliye yeh script pictographic hai. Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation ke log, jise Indus Valley ya Harappan civilisation bhi kehte hain, saaf taur par duniya ke pehle likhne walon mein the. Phir bhi aaj koi bhi insaan unki likhi ek bhi line padh nahi sakta. Unki script, Sindhu lipi, abhi tak decipher nahi hui hai, isliye hum Harappans ke baare mein unke apne shabdon se nahi, balki unke cities aur objects se seekhte hain.

Yeh itna important kyun hai? Kyunki jo text hum padh sakte hain, usse past ke log khud apni baat keh paate hain. Lagbhag Harappans ke samay hi Mesopotamia ke Sumerians ne clay mein wedge ke shape ke signs dabana shuru kiya (cuneiform), aur Egyptians ne hieroglyphs naam ke picture-signs khodna shuru kiya. Aaj ke scholars dono scripts ko decode kar chuke hain. Isliye historians historical period, yaani past ka woh hissa jise hum padhe ja sakne wale texts se study kar sakte hain, lagbhag 5,000 saal pehle se shuru maante hain. Usse pehle ke lambe daur ko aksar prehistory kehte hain.

Bharat ki woh writing jo padhi ja sakti hai, bahut baad mein aati hai. Madhya Pradesh mein Sanchi ke great stupa ko lo. Uski patthar ki railing par chhote inscriptions un logon ke naam batate hain jinhone har hisse ke liye paisa diya, aur unke daan 2,000 se zyaada saal baad bhi padhe ja sakte hain. Yeh Brahmi mein likhe hain, ek script jo lagbhag 400 BCE se south India ke kuch hisson aur Ganga valley mein use hoti thi. Emperor Aśhoka ne 3rd century BCE mein Brahmi ko ek standard form diya aur apne edicts ke liye use kiya, aur poore south ki Iron Age communities bhi isi mein likhti thi. Baad ki zyaadatar Indian scripts Brahmi se hi nikli, yeh kahani tum higher classes mein padhoge.

Is tarah human past do bahut asmaan hisson mein bant jaata hai: writing se pehle ka ek lamba daur aur uske baad ka ek chhota daur. Table 4.1 dono ko compare karta hai, aur Fig. 4.1 dikhata hai ki woh kitne asmaan hain.

4.2 Hum early human history kyun padhein?

Un logon par time kyun lagayein jo kisi city, king ya book se bhi pehle rehte the? Kyunki unhone hi hamein banaya. Kai million saal mein do tarah ke changes ne insaanon ko shape diya, aur dono ek aise climate ke hisaab se badalte rahe jo kabhi ek jaisa nahi raha.

Biological evolution body par kaam karta hai. Genes mein chhote-chhote farq, jo parents se bachchon tak jaate hain, hazaaron generations mein jud kar bade changes ban jaate hain: seedha khade hokar chalna, bada brain, chhote daant. Isi tarah australopithecines, yaani hamare family tree ke early members, se kai million saal mein genus Homo bana aur aakhir mein modern humans, Homo sapiens. (Australopithecus ka matlab hai 'southern ape', Latin australis, 'southern', aur Greek pithekos, 'ape' se: pehle fossils South Africa mein mile the.)

Cultural evolution jeene ke tareekon par kaam karta hai: log kya jaante, banate aur karte hain, jo unhone doosron se seekha, virasat mein nahi paaya. Iska zyaadatar hissa Quaternary period mein hua, yaani pichhle 26 lakh (lagbhag 2.6 million) saal se aaj tak, jab climate baar-baar barfeele aur garam phases ke beech jhoolta raha. Har badlaav se yeh badal jaata tha ki aas-paas kaun se plants aur animals hain. Jo log behtar tool, hunting ki nayi trick ya zyaada garam shelter invent kar sake, wahi bach paaye.

Sabse bada cultural change khaane mein aaya. Lagbhag poore past mein log shikaar karte aur khaana ikattha karte the. Phir kuch logon ne fasal ugaana aur jaanwar paalna shuru kiya. Ek farming family jitna khaati thi, usse zyaada anaaj uga sakti thi: ek surplus. Yeh extra anaaj kisi potter, priest ya ruler ka pet bhar sakta tha jo khud koi khaana nahi ugaata tha. Jab kaafi log aise rehne lage, to towns, cities aur civilisation mumkin ho gaye: cities, specialised kaam, government aur aam taur par writing wali badi, complex societies.

Zyaadatar scientists maante hain ki hamare sabse pehle ancestors Africa mein evolve hue. Hum kaise jaante hain ki log baad mein wahan se bahar faile? Tools ke peeche chalo. Aansoo ki boond jaise shape wale handaxes aur seedhi dhaar wale cleavers pehle Africa mein dikhte hain. Phir isi tarah ke tools Asia aur Europe ki sites par milte hain, jinki date lagbhag 2 se 0.5 million saal pehle ke beech hai. Inhe banane wale the Homo erectus, yaani 'upright human', ek do pairon wala ancestor aur, jahan tak hum jaante hain, Africa chhodne wala pehla hominin, jo lagbhag 2 million saal pehle nikalna shuru hua.

Hamari apni species bahut baad mein aayi. Homo sapiens Africa mein lagbhag 300,000 saal pehle dikhe, aur early modern humans ki ek badi lehar lagbhag 125,000 saal pehle continent se bahar nikli. Unke vanshaj aakhir mein Antarctica ko chhod kar har continent par bas gaye, aur aaj zinda har insaan isi ek species ka hai.

4.3 Hamare human ancestors kaun the?

Ek kachcha aam pehle apne naakhoon se chheelne ki koshish karo, phir chaaku se. Chaaku woh kar deta hai jo tumhara haath nahi kar sakta; yeh body ke ek extra, zyaada tez hisse ki tarah kaam karta hai. Archaeologists bilkul isi idea ko use karte hain jab woh tools ko extra-corporal limbs kehte hain, yaani body ke bahar ke limbs.

Sabse purane known stone tools lagbhag 3.3 million saal pehle bane, jab kisi ne mann mein ek plan ke hisaab se patthar se tez flakes tod kar nikaale. Kuch jaanwar simple objects use karte hain (chimpanzee ek tehni chheel kar usse deemak pakadta hai), lekin plan ke hisaab se patthar ko shape dena sirf hominins ne hi kiya hai, jahan tak hum jaante hain. Archaeologists ise khaas insaani vyavahaar ki shuruaat maante hain, aur tool banana hominins ki pehchaan ban gaya.

Woh pehle tools kisne banaye? Hum pakka nahi keh sakte, kyunki us samay hamara family tree seedhi ladder se zyaada ek jhaadi jaisa tha: kai tarah ke human ancestors ek hi samay mein rehte the, kabhi-kabhi saath-saath. Human life ke sabse purane nishaan Africa, Asia aur Europe se milte hain, jinhe historians 'Old World' kehte hain.

4.3.1 Hum apne ancestors ke baare mein kaise jaante hain?

Archaeologists ek bahut purane scene par detectives ki tarah kaam karte hain. Woh ek umeed bhari jagah chunte hain, jaise nadi ka kinaara, gufa ya teela, aur use dheere-dheere, layer by layer khodte hain: ise excavation kehte hain. Har cheez ko measure kiya jaata hai, uski photo li jaati hai aur us layer ka label lagaya jaata hai jahan se woh mili, kyunki uski position khud ek clue hai. Jaisa Fig. 4.3 dikhata hai, layers samay ke saath ek ke upar ek jamti hain, isliye gehri layers aam taur par zyaada purani hoti hain.

Zyaadatar purane tools kisi ne jaan-boojh kar nahi dabaye. Ek ghisa hua handaxe wahin gir gaya jahan uska maalik khada tha, aur hazaaron saal mein dhool, keechad aur nadi ki ret ne use dhak diya. Kuch ancestors ki body bhi isi dheemi tarah dab gayi, aur bahut lambe samay mein unki haddiyan patthar bankar fossils ban gayi. Tools aur fossils milkar sabse purani human kahani ke main evidence hain.

Khudaai sirf aadha kaam hai. Archaeologists experiment bhi karte hain. Woh ek purane handaxe ki copy banane ke liye hammerstone se patthar par maar kar flakes nikaalte hain, phir us copy se maans kaatte ya lakdi kaatte hain. Copy par aayi ghisaai ko original ke nishaanon se compare karke unhe pata chalta hai ki purana tool kis kaam aata tha, aur use banane mein kitna time aur skill lagi.

4.3.2 'Handy man' se modern humans tak

Fossils aur tools ki madad se hum in ancestors mein se kuch ko naam de paate hain, aur Table 4.2 unmein se chaar ko line mein rakhta hai. Table ko upar se neeche padho, to do patterns saaf dikhte hain. Tools chhote, tez aur zyaada tarah ke hote jaate hain, kuch flakes tode gaye ek pebble se lekar fine blades ke poore sets tak. Aur jahan log rehte the uska map East Africa ke ek hisse se badhkar poori duniya tak pahunch jaata hai. Table ki har species tools banati thi, lekin sirf Homo sapiens ne sach mein complex technology banayi, sui aur naav se lekar, bahut baad mein, computers tak.

4.4 Early human history ke periods

Kai million saal lambi kahani ko chapters chahiye. Historians early human history ko periods mein baantte hain, jinke naam us technology par rakhe gaye hain jo har period ki pehchaan thi, sabse badhkar uske best tools ka material. Naya period aam taur par khaana paane ka naya tareeka aur naye tarah ka ghar bhi lekar aata tha. Fig. 4.4 in sab par se chadhta hai.

Pehle teen periods milkar Stone Age banate hain, jab tools ke liye patthar hi main material tha. Uske baad metals aaye: pehle patthar ke saath copper, phir bronze, aur aakhir mein iron. Yaad rakho ki yeh stages hain, poori duniya ki dates nahi. Ek region abhi bhi Stone Age mein ho sakta tha jabki bahut door doosra region bronze use karne wale cities bana raha ho.

4.4.1 Palaeolithic ke hunter–gatherers

Sabse purane aur sabse lambe period se shuru karte hain. Iska naam do Greek shabdon ko jodta hai, palaios ('purana') aur lithos ('patthar'): Palaeolithic yaani Old Stone Age. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) aur Neolithic (New Stone Age) ke saath milkar yeh Stone Age banata hai.

Socho ki tumhare paas na koi metal hai, na pot, na chaaku. Ek tez patthar se hi jaanwar kaatna, jadd khodna, khaal saaf karna aur haddi todkar uska charbi aur protein se bhara marrow nikaalna padta. Ghisaai ke nishaan aur experiments dikhate hain ki India ke early stone tools bilkul yahi chaar kaam karte the.

Aur yeh bahut purane hain. Subcontinent mein logon ke nishaan lagbhag 2 million saal peeche tak ja sakte hain. Sabse achhi tarah study ki gayi do sites south mein hain:

• Attirampakkam, Chennai ke paas, Tamil Nadu: lagbhag 1.5 se 1.7 million saal purane tools, zyaadatar quartzite ke, jo animal fossils ke saath mile.
• Isampur, Karnataka: ek jagah jahan log lagbhag 1.2 million saal pehle limestone nikaalte aur use shape dete the.

Dono sites par log bade cutting tools, handaxes aur cleavers, ke saath chhote scrapers aur choppers bhi chhod gaye.

Baad ke toolmakers ne chhote tools banaye. Middle Palaeolithic kits mein aise flakes bhare hain jinhe scrapers, borers (chhed karne ke liye) aur points ki shape di gayi. Lakdi ke dande se bandha point ek stick ko phenkne wale bhaale mein badal deta hai, isliye hunter ko ab kisi khatarnaak jaanwar ke haath bhar ki doori tak jaane ki zaroorat nahi rahi.

Phir insaan ke toolkit mein achaanak ek bada upgrade aaya. Upper Palaeolithic apne saath laaya:

• Blades: fine, kaanch jaise patthar ke lambe, patle, parallel kinaaron wale flakes, jo naye hone par razor jaise tez hote the; sabse chhote, microblades, handles mein lagaye jaate the.
• Bow and arrow: ab hunters bade jaanwaron ke saath chhote, tez jaanwaron ko bhi maar sakte the.
• Burins: chisel jaise nok wale tools jinse haddi aur shell, yahan tak ki ostrich ke ande ke chhilke par bhi, lines aur patterns khode jaate the.
• Art aur ornament: gufaon aur rock-shelters ki deewaron par paintings, body ke liye ochre aur doosre rang, aur patthar, haddi aur shell ke pehle beads.

Paintings aur beads symbolic soch ke nishaan hain: ek cheez ko doosri cheez ke liye maan lena, jaise shabd karte hain. Yeh poora toolkit Homo sapiens ka hai, jo lagbhag 50,000 se 12,000 saal pehle ke beech poori duniya mein faile, yahan tak ki Australia aur Americas tak pahunch gaye.

4.4.2 Mesolithic ke hunter–gatherers

Lagbhag 12,000 saal pehle aakhri bada thanda phase khatam hua. Fig. 4.6 mein effects ki chain ko follow karo:

1. Climate garam hota hai, aur ice sheets pighal kar peeche hatti hain.
2. Jo zameen jami hui ya khaali thi, us par jungle aur grasslands fail jaate hain.
3. Khaana tarah-tarah ka aur bharpoor ho jaata hai: hiran, khargosh aur doosre chhote jaanwar, nadiyon, jheelon aur samudra mein machhliyan, aur jungli anaaj.
4. Zyaada khaane se zyaada bachche bachte hain. Kai scholars ise human history ka pehla population boom kehte hain.

Logon ne is nayi duniya ka saamna naye tools se kiya. Microliths patthar ke chhote blades aur points hain, aksar ek naakhoon se bhi chhote. Lakdi ya haddi mein line se lagakar inse arrows, kaanton wale harpoons aur sickles bante the, aur fishing khaana paane ka ek main tareeka ban gaya.

Madhya Pradesh ki jungle wali pahaadiyon mein Bhimbetka is daur ka artistic pehlu dikhata hai. Iske saikdon rock shelters, jo ab UNESCO World Heritage Site hain, bahut purane samay se basey hue the. Kai deewaron par paintings bani hain, zyaadatar laal aur safed rang mein: bison, hiran aur jungli suar, bow wale hunters, naachne wale aur rozmarra ki zindagi ke scenes. Aisi gufaayein aur rock shelters Mesolithic mein pasandeeda ghar the.

4.5 Neolithic Revolution

Gatherers ke ek band ki kalpana karo jo har saal usi valley mein lautta hai. Woh dekhte hain ki pichhle saal ke camp ke paas gire beej ug aaye hain, aur kuch bakriyan doosron se zyaada shaant hain. Aisi chhoti-chhoti baatein, saikdon generations tak dohraayi gayi, dheere-dheere kuch hunter–gatherers ko farmers bana gayi. Historians khaana ikattha karne se khaana paida karne ki is switch ko Neolithic Revolution kehte hain.

Iska mool tha domestication. Farmers un plants aur animals ko rakhte aur breed karte the jo unke liye sabse achhe the, jab tak aisi nayi varieties na ban gayi jo insaanon par nirbhar thi. Jungli gehun apne pake beej zameen par bikher deta hai; early farmers baar-baar un plants ko lagate rahe jinke beej harvest tak dandi par tike rehte the. Jungli suar paaltu suar ban gaye, aur jungli bakriyan aur bhedein paaltu jhund ban gayi.

Upar diye comparison mein farmers ke tools dekho: jungle saaf karne ke liye polished axes, hoes, sickles aur grinding stones, sab khaana ugaane, kaatne ya taiyaar karne ke liye hain. Kai shapes aur sizes ke mitti ke pots isliye dikhte hain kyunki ab jama karne ke liye anaaj aur pakaane ke liye dalia hai. Aur kyunki khet saath le jaaye nahi ja sakte, families gaon mein bas jaati hain, jo towns aur cities ki taraf raaste ka pehla kadam hai.

Farming har jagah ek saath shuru nahi hui, na hi same fasalon ke saath. Har region ne wahan ugne wali cheezon ko domesticate kiya. Fig. 4.7 kuch shuruaati jagahon ko mark karta hai. West Asia mein lagbhag 12,000 saal pehle gehun aur jau ugaaye gaye, aur Mehrgarh mein lagbhag 9,000 saal pehle. North China ke farmers millets ugaate the, aur Yangtze ke kinaare wale chawal. West Africa mein pearl millet sirf lagbhag 4,500 saal pehle domesticate hua. Indian farmers ne bhi millets ko aur Ganga plains mein chawal ko domesticate kiya. Kuch regions mein, jaise China aur Africa ke kuch hisson mein, log farming se pehle hi pottery bana rahe the.

4.5.1 Indian subcontinent mein Neolithic period

Subcontinent ke andar bhi farming ek saath nahi, balki region by region failti gayi. Ab tak mila sabse purana farming village hai Mehrgarh, Bolan Pass ke paas Bolan River ke kinaare, jo aaj Pakistan mein hai. Log wahan lagbhag 7000 BCE mein base, isliye yeh is region ki sabse purani Neolithic site hai. Excavations ek bharpoor gaon ki zindagi dikhate hain:

• Ghar aur bhandaar: haath se bani, dhoop mein sukhaayi mud bricks ke ghar, aur anaaj ke liye alag granaries.
• Fasal aur jhund: gehun aur jau; bhedein, bakriyan aur Indian kubad wale (zebu) cattle.
• Crafts: lapis lazuli, carnelian aur shell ke gehne, jinmein se kuch bahut door se laaye gaye the.
• Burials: marne walon ko kabron mein litaya jaata tha, aksar gehnon ke saath.
• Metal: lagbhag 4000 BCE tak yahan ke log copper ki cheezein bana rahe the, yaani woh Chalcolithic ho gaye the, copper aur patthar dono use karne wale.

Mehrgarh ki lambi kahani, pehle farmers se copper workers tak, ne Bronze Age ki Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation ki neenv rakhi. Doosri jagahon par Neolithic gaon kaise dikhte the? Lagbhag 2500 BCE tak subcontinent ke zyaadatar regions mein aisa ek gaon mil jaata. Gaon wale cereals, millets aur pulses ka mix ugaate the aur cattle, bhedon aur bakriyon ke jhund rakhte the. Kashmir ke Burzahom mein families zameen mein khode gaddhon mein rehti thi; south mein gaon granite pahaadiyon par base the. Kuch ilaakon mein yeh farmers copper use karne wali Chalcolithic communities ke saath-saath rehte the aur unse trade karte the.

South ka ek example hai Sanganakallu, Karnataka mein Ballari ke paas. Lagbhag 2000 BCE mein yahan ke log granite pahaadiyon ke upar rehte the aur aas-paas ki sakht, kaali chattaan se polished stone axes banate the.

4.6 Sindhu–Sarasvatī Civilisation

Bade cities achaanak kahin se nahi aa jaate. Harappan cities, jo lagbhag 2600 BCE tak khade ho chuke the, unki jadein hazaaron saal peeche Mehrgarh jaise gaon tak jaati thi, jahan se farming Indus valley mein upar aur purab ki taraf faili thi. Fig. 4.8 us raaste par ek kaalpanik basti ko follow karta hai. Archaeologists chaar cheezon ki taraf ishara karte hain jo ek saath aayi:

• Copper. Lagbhag 4000 BCE mein is region ke gaon ne ore se copper nikaalna seekh liya, aur subcontinent ki pehli Chalcolithic sites ban gaye, jisse Bronze Age ka raasta khula. Copper tools ki madad se farmers Indus aur Ghaggar-Sarasvatī plains ki nadi se aayi upjaau mitti se zyaada fasal le paaye, aur gaon khushhaal hue.
• Crafts. Potters bade paimaane par kaam karte the, aur har region apne pots apni style mein paint karta tha. Copperwork, shell work aur semi-precious stone ke beads dheere-dheere behtar hote gaye; Early Harappan bead workshops Harappa (Pakistan), Kunal (Haryana) aur Datrana (Gujarat) se pata hain.
• Early city features. Bastiyon ne apne chaaron taraf deewarein banana shuru kiya. Harappa, Rehman Dheri aur Kunal ke potters ne pots par signs khurche (graffiti), aur kuch seals par geometric patterns ya simple jaanwar bane hain: shayad cities ki script aur likhi hui seals ki taraf pehle kadam.
• Regions ke beech links. Jaise-jaise sampark aur trade badha, local styles mil kar civilisation ki shared, standard features ban gayi, jo lagbhag 2500 BCE tak tay ho chuki thi.

Yeh sites bina kisi break ke cities mein badal jaati hain: wahi pottery traditions, beads, shell bangles, terracotta (pakki mitti) ki cheezein aur copperwork chalte rehte hain. Isliye archaeologists is stage ko Early Harappan kehte hain (Harappan timeline mein lagbhag 3300–2600 BCE). Kuch sites isse bhi purani hain. Haryana ke sookh chuke Sarasvatī belt mein Bhirrana aur Kunal mein radiocarbon dates batati hain ki sabse purani, Pre-Harappan, layers 7000–5500 BCE tak jaati hain.

4.7 India ke bahar Bronze Age civilisations

Jab Harappan potters apne pots pakaa rahe the, tab door pashchim aur purab mein bhi log cities bana rahe the. Unhi sadiyon mein teen aur badi Bronze Age civilisations phali-phooli: Mesopotamia mein, Egypt mein aur China mein. Har ek se milte waqt use Class 6 mein Harappans ke baare mein padhi baaton se compare karo: unki planned streets aur naaliyan, standard weights, beads, seals aur ab tak na padhi gayi script.

Jaisa Fig. 4.10 dikhata hai, chaaron civilisations ek river plain par badhi. Harappans Sindhu aur Sarasvatī ke kinaare rehte the, aur Mesopotamians West Asia mein Euphrates aur Tigris ke kinaare. Egyptians Nile ke paas kheti karte the, aur early Chinese Huang He basin mein. Geography ne yeh bhi tay kiya ki kaun kisse mila. Chaaron mein Mesopotamia Harappans ka sabse kareebi padosi tha, aur dono ke beech gehra sampark aur trade raha. Egypt aur China bahut door the, aur archaeologists ko aisa koi pakka evidence kam hi mila hai ki inmein se kisi ne Harappans se seedha len-den kiya.

4.7.1 Mesopotamia ki civilisation

Hari-bhari pahaadiyon ke ek aise ghumaav ki kalpana karo jo naye chaand ki tarah Zagros aur Taurus pahaadon ke saath-saath, Mediterranean coast se ghoomkar Persian Gulf tak jaata hai. Wahan fasalein itni achhi ugti thi ki ise Fertile Crescent kehte hain, aur is region mein farming lagbhag 12,000 saal pehle shuru hui. Iske purabi chhor par ek samtal maidaan hai jise do nadiyan seenchti hain, Tigris aur Euphrates. Greeks ne ise Mesopotamia kaha, yaani 'nadiyon ke beech ki zameen'. Aaj yeh zameen zyaadatar Iraq aur Kuwait mein hai, aur kuch hisse Türkiye aur southwestern Iran mein. Duniya ki sabse pehli city-based civilisation yahin bani.

Is purani farming wali zameen par metal der se aaya. Copper tools river plain tak sirf lagbhag 4500 BCE mein pahunche, lekin ek baar aane ke baad farmers, craftworkers aur traders sab zyaada productive ho gaye, aur farming poore maidaan par fail gayi. Jaise-jaise towns bade hue, kuch ne apni khud ki governments bana li aur city-states ban gaye. Lagbhag 3500 BCE se chaar city-based civilisations ek ke baad ek uthi: Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian aur Babylonian (Mesopotamian timeline).

Sumerians

Sumer, Mesopotamia ke bilkul south mein (aaj ka southern Iraq), mein bahut kam baarish hoti hai. Yahan ke logon ne iska hal dams banakar aur canals khodkar nikaala, jo nadi ka paani unke kheton tak le jaati thi; yeh hamare jaane hue sabse purane irrigation systems mein se hain. Unhone mud bricks aur pakki (jali hui) bricks se ghar, temples aur moti city walls banana bhi seekha. Ur, Uruk, Lagash aur Eridu unke cities mein se the, aur Sumer duniya ki pehli civilisation bana jo cities par tiki thi.

Kisi Sumerian city mein khade ho jao, to ek building sab par bhaari padti hai: ziggurat, city ke main god ke liye ek bahut bada seedhiyon wala temple (Fig. 4.11). Sumerians kai gods ko maante the jo baadh, toofan aur nature ki doosri shaktiyon ko control karte the, lekin har city ka apna ek khaas rakshak hota tha. Temple city ka economic headquarters bhi tha: kheti ka kaam, trade aur saamaan ka aana-jaana isi ke through organise hota tha, aur iske storerooms mein city ki daulat rakhi rehti thi. Phir bhi aam log pavitra shrine mein nahi ja sakte the; sirf high priests aur priestesses, jo shayad ruling group ke members the, ja sakte the. Society saaf taur par darjon mein bati hui thi.

Temple se door farq bahut saaf tha: kai kamron wala king ka palace, aur baaki sab ke liye chhote brick gharon ki galiyan. Zyaadatar families kheti mein lagi rehti thi, lekin Sumerian market mein ghoomte hue tumhe metalworkers, potters, weavers aur traders bhi dikhte. Ur ke ek sajaaye hue lakdi ke box par jade hue scenes mein log lipte hue kapdon aur gehnon mein dikhte hain, aur jaanwaron se kheenchi jaane wali solid pahiyon wali gaadiyan bhi.

Writing ki shuruaat

Mesopotamia mein writing shayad ek practical fikar se shuru hui: yeh hisaab kaise rakhein ki temple ka kisne kitna jau dena hai? Lagbhag 3200 BCE tak Sumerian scribes ke paas iska jawaab tha, duniya ke sabse pehle writing systems mein se ek. Woh geeli clay ki tablet mein sarkande ka kata hua sira dabaate the, jisse chhote wedge ke shape ke gaddhe bante the. Latin cuneus, yaani 'wedge', se is script ko cuneiform kehte hain, aur ismein kai sau alag signs the. 3000 BCE tak poore Mesopotamia ke city-states cuneiform mein likhte the, bhale hi unke log alag-alag languages bolte the, bilkul waise hi jaise aaj Hindi, Marathi aur Nepali sab Devanagari mein likhi jaati hain.

Saikdon signs seekhne mein saalon lagte the, isliye scribes ki bahut izzat thi, aur unka darja priests aur priestesses ke kareeb tha. Bachi hui zyaadatar tablets rozmarra ke records hain: jama kiya aur baanta gaya anaaj, gine gaye jhund, workers ka rashan, karz aur zameen ki bikri. Lekin scribes ne myths aur epics, hymns, laws aur students ke lessons bhi likhe, isliye in tablets se hum Mesopotamians ki apni awaaz sun paate hain.

Akkadians

Central Mesopotamia mein Sumer ke north mein ek city, Akkad, 2334 BCE mein aage nikal gayi. Iske king Sargon aur uske baad aane walon ne ek ke baad ek city ko apne control mein liya, aur Akkadian records ek family dwara chalaaye gaye ek raajya ka varnan karte hain: duniya ka pehla dynastic empire. Akkadians ki language Sumerian se kaafi alag thi, lekin unhone use likhne ke liye cuneiform signs udhaar le liye, bilkul waise hi jaise English Latin se liye gaye alphabet mein likhi jaati hai. Yeh creative literature ka daur bhi tha.

Akkadian tablets yeh bhi dikhati hain ki Mesopotamia ki luxury cheezein kahan se aati thi. Sargon ne garv se kaha ki teen purabi deshon, Dilmun, Magan aur Meluhha, ke jahaaz uski capital ke ghaat par aakar ruke. Dilmun Bahrain tha aur Magan Oman peninsula, dono Persian Gulf par, aur zyaadatar scholars maante hain ki Meluhha Harappan land tha. Harappans se semi-precious stone ke beads, haathi daant, lakdi, sone ki dhool aur shayad copper aata tha. Ur jaise Mesopotamian cities mein khudaai mein mile Harappan-style carnelian beads aur seals is kahani ki pushti karte hain.

Assyrians

Akkad ki badhat do sadiyon se kam chali. Tumhari textbook ki dating ke hisaab se lagbhag 2154 BCE mein north ke ek city-state Assur ne power le li, aur Assyrian power poore Mesopotamia mein aur pashchim aur south ke ilaakon tak fail gayi. Yeh early 1700s BCE tak chali.

Babylonians

Is beech, lagbhag 1900 BCE se, central Mesopotamia mein Babylon uth raha tha. Iska sabse famous king, Hammurabi, 1792 BCE mein gaddi par baitha, ek-ek karke apne padosiyon ko haraaya aur ek chhote city-state ko ek bade empire mein badal diya.

Hammurabi ko sabse zyaada laws ke ek collection ke liye yaad kiya jaata hai, Code of Hammurabi, jismein uske poore empire ke liye trade, property, family life, crime aur punishment ke rules the. Yeh ek oonche patthar ke khambe (stele) par cuneiform mein khoda gaya tha. Sabse upar ek carving mein king ko Babylonian nyaay ke god Shamash ke saamne khada dikhaya gaya hai, jaise woh unse laws le raha ho. Kai punishments sakht the, aur woh insaan ke darje par nirbhar the: kisi noble ko nuksaan pahunchane ki keemat kisi aam aadmi ya slave ko nuksaan pahunchane se zyaada thi. Phir bhi, sabke dekhne ke liye likhe gaye laws baad ke kai legal systems ke liye ek model ban gaye.

Babylon ki power tiki nahi. Tumhari textbook ke mutaabik, lagbhag 1400 BCE tak woh apni pehli jagah kho chuka tha. Historians kai kaaranon ki taraf ishara karte hain jo saath milkar kaam kar rahe the:

• Yuddh: 11Second millennium BCE mein Anatolia (aaj ka Türkiye) ke ek mazboot kingdom ke rulers. Unki language Sanskrit ki tarah Indo-European family ki hai. Hittites aur doosri ubharti powers ke baar-baar hamle, jinhone nayi technologies mein maharat haasil kar li thi aur natural resources ko zyaada achhe se use karte the.
• Environment: kharaab hui zameen aur kheti ki zameen par badhta dabaav.
• Ghar ki problems: state ke andar political aur economic pareshaaniyan.

4.7.2 Egypt ki civilisation

Bahut kam purane logon ne Egyptians jitna evidence chhoda hai. Bahar se aane walon ne unke baare mein jaldi hi likhna shuru kar diya: Greek aur Roman authors Egypt ko achhi tarah jaante the, aur Greek historian Herodotus 5th century BCE mein wahan ghooma. Bahut baad mein, Napoleon ki army ke saath gaye French scholars ne poore desh ka survey kiya. Unki vishaal illustrated volumes, Description de l'Égypte, jo early 19th century mein publish hui, ne purane Egypt ko poore Europe mein famous kar diya.

Isse bhi zyaada bharpoor hain Egyptians ki apni writings, jo papyrus par hain. Kuch practical hain: medical nuskhe, letters aur hisaab. Kuch kahaniyan hain. Egyptian padhne walon ko chalaak jaanwaron ki fables, bhoot ki kahaniyan, jaadu aur prem ki kahaniyan pasand thi, aur ek jahaaz doobne ke baad bache sailor ka samudri adventure bhi, jise aksar Sindbad ki yatraon se compare kiya jaata hai. Ek kahani to shayad ek shuruaati 'Cinderella' bhi ho. Scrolls keemti the, isliye lagbhag 2000 BCE tak unhe library ki shelves par label lage jars mein rakha jaata tha.

Egyptians aasmaan ko dhyaan se dekhte the. Unhone notice kiya ki chamakdaar 'Dog Star' Sirius subah hone se theek pehle purabi horizon par lagbhag usi samay dobara dikhta tha jab Nile ka paani badhna shuru hota tha. Isse unhone chaar-chaar mahine ke teen seasons wala calendar banaya, har mahina 30 din ka:

• Akhet, baadh: Nile kheton mein bhar jaati hai.
• Peret, ugna: paani utarta hai, aur fasal boyi jaati hai aur ugti hai.
• Shemu, harvest: agli baadh se pehle fasal kaati jaati hai.

Aakhir mein paanch extra din jodkar 365 din ka saal banta tha, jo kamaal ka achha result hai. Lekin asli solar year lagbhag ek din ke chauthai hisse jitna lamba hota hai. Isliye calendar har chaar saal mein lagbhag ek din khisak jaata tha aur dheere-dheere seasons se mel kho deta tha.

Nile ka tohfa

Nile ke bina Egypt registan hota. Har garmi mein nadi ufan kar apne kinaaron par fail jaati thi; jab paani utarta, to kaali silt ki ek nayi layer chhod jaata jo kheton ko behad upjaau bana deti thi. Egyptians ne is mitti ke naam par apni zameen ko Kemet, yaani 'kaali zameen', kaha, aur uske paar ke banjar registan ko Deshret, yaani 'laal zameen'. Jaise-jaise yeh patli hari patti zyaada se zyaada logon ka pet bharne lagi, lagbhag 3000 BCE mein pehle city-states bane.

Socho ki ek nadi ko share karne ke liye kya chahiye. Lagbhag 5,000 saal pehle Egyptian farmers ne Nile ka paani apne kheton tak le jaane ke liye naaliyan kaatna aur baad ke liye paani bachaane ke liye reservoirs banana shuru kiya. Ek family akele canal nahi khod sakti ya dam ki marammat nahi kar sakti: poore gaon ko saath kaam karna padta tha, aur kisi ko tay karna padta tha ki kaun kahan khodega aur paani pehle kise milega. Historians maante hain ki aise saanjhe kaam se Egypt ke pehle organisers aur officials bane, yaani local government ki shuruaat hui. Ek baadh se agli baadh tak din ginne se Egyptians ko apne saal ki lambaai bhi pata chali.

Pharaohs, pyramids aur rozmarra ki zindagi

Egyptians maante the ki har insaan ka ek ka hota hai, ek spirit double jo maut ke baad bhi zinda rehta hai lekin bachne ke liye use body ki zaroorat hoti hai. Isliye ruler ki body ko mummification se surakshit rakhna aur ek tomb mein bachaana zaroori tha, agli zindagi ke liye khaane, furniture aur khazaane ke saath. Jaise-jaise rulers, jinhe pharaohs kehte the, zyaada powerful hote gaye, unke tombs bhi bade hote gaye (Fig. 4.13).

Shuruaati royal burials zameen ke neeche gehraai mein ek mastaba ke neeche hoti thi, jo mud brick ya patthar ki ek neechi, samtal chhat wali, rectangular building hoti thi. Baad ke builders ne ek ke upar ek chhote hote mastabas rakhe, aur result tha ek pyramid. Ek famous shuruaati example hai Saqqara ka Step Pyramid, jo lagbhag 4,600 saal pehle King Djoser ke liye bana, aur jismein chhe vishaal steps hain.

Egyptians mazaa kaise karte the? Nadi mein woh tairte aur canoe chalaate the; ghar par senet khelte the, ek board game jo royal tombs mein bhi mila hai; aur music aur dance unke jashn mein jaan daal dete the. Sabse bade mauke tyohaar the. Kisi god ke tyohaar par, god ki murti ko sistrum ki jhankaar ke saath julus mein le jaaya jaata tha, jo metal discs lagi ek jhunjhuna hoti thi. Kuch tyohaar khud pharaoh ke sammaan mein hote the: Sed festival, jo king ke gaddi par tees saal poore hone par hota tha, uski taakat ko naya karne ke liye tha.

4.7.3 China ki civilisation

China ki kahani bhi do nadiyon se shuru hoti hai: Huang He, yaani Yellow River, jiska naam uski laayi peeli silt ki wajah se pada, aur aage south mein Yangtze. Lagbhag 7000 BCE tak dono valleys mein farming villages base the. Phir ek lamba, dheema vikaas hua. Yellow River basin ke gaon mein bronze ka kaam lagbhag 2000 BCE mein pahuncha. Phir bhi cities lagbhag chaar sadiyon baad, lagbhag 1600 BCE mein bane, jab khet zyaada paida karne lage aur metalworkers aur craftspeople zyaada kushal ho gaye. Cities ke saath China ka pehla Bronze Age state aaya jo ek bade ilaake par raaj karta tha.

Chinese historians samay ko dynasties se ginte hain, yaani ruling families jo ek ke baad ek aayi (China timeline). Shang aur Zhou ne Bronze Age mein raaj kiya, aur lagbhag 600 BCE tak iron aam taur par use hone laga. Baad mein thodi der chalne wali Qin dynasty ne apne pehle emperor ke neeche China ko ek kiya aur shayad desh ko uska naam diya, kyunki Qin ko Ch'in bhi likhte hain. Uske baad aayi Han dynasty chaar sadiyon se zyaada chali.

Hum early China ke baare mein kaise jaante hain?

China mein court historians ne kai sadiyon tak saal-dar-saal events likhe, isliye baad ke periods ka record bahut achha hai. Lekin sabse purane samay ke liye historians ek ajeeb source ki taraf jaate hain: oracle bones. Yeh bailon ke kandhe ki haddiyan aur kachhuon ke neeche ke chapte khol the, jinke zariye Shang kings apne ancestors ki aatmaon se sawaal poochhte the. Fig. 4.14 dikhata hai kaise. Sawaalon se pata chalta hai ki king ko kis baat ki fikar thi. Kya baarish hogi? Kya fasal achhi hogi? Kya hum yuddh karein? Saath padhne par hazaaron aise sawaal dikhate hain ki early Chinese kis cheez ki umeed karte the aur kis cheez se darte the; yeh sabse purani Chinese writing bhi hain.

Early Chinese craft mein teen materials khaas hain:

• Bronze: dhalaai karne wale weapons, tools aur khaane aur sharaab ke liye shaandaar ritual vessels banate the.
• Jade: is sakht, chikne patthar ko kaat kar ritual objects, chhoti murtiyan aur gehne banaye jaate the jo ooncha darja dikhate the. Yeh paas mein nahi milta tha aur door ke sources se laana padta tha, isliye jade ke pieces shayad social len-den mein keemti tohfon ka kaam bhi karte the.
• Marble: isse panchhi aur jaanwar banaye jaate the, aur lakdi ke khambon ke base ke roop mein bhi use hota tha.

Great Wall of China ek hi samay mein bani ek deewar nahi hai. Lagbhag 680 BCE se (tumhari textbook ki date), Zhou aur doosre states ne north ke nomadic logon ke hamlon se bachne ke liye deewar ke alag-alag hisse banaye. Baad ke rulers ne unhe jodkar defence ki ek line bana di, aur banana aur marammat lagbhag do hazaar saal tak, 17th century CE tak, chalti rahi.

China ko India aur Mediterranean se jodne wale trade route ka naam ek Chinese product par rakha gaya hai: silk. Chinese log Neolithic samay (lagbhag 4000–3000 BCE) se silk bana rahe the, aur yeh Bronze Age ka ek important craft ban gaya. Han dynasty ke samay, lagbhag 2nd century BCE mein, silk pashchim ke deshon ko jaane wala ek bada export ban gaya. 1877 mein ek German geographer, Ferdinand von Richthofen, ne is poore network ko woh naam diya jo hum aaj bhi use karte hain: Silk Road, ya Silk Route.

Egypt ki tarah, lagbhag 1500 BCE tak Shang society mein bhi darjon ki ek oonchi seedhi thi. Sabse upar rulers, nobles aur aristocrats ka ek chhota group tha, aur zyaadatar log, farmers aur mazdoor, unke neeche the. Baad ki Chinese society isi layered pattern par aage badhti rahi.

4.8 Early civilisations mein kya common tha

Chaaron Bronze Age civilisations ek doosre se door aur zyaadatar akele badhi, phir bhi Table 4.3 dikhata hai ki unke raaste hairat-angez roop se milte-julte the. Iski rows ko aar-paar padho, to wahi pattern baar-baar dikhta hai:

• River plains se paani, upjaau mitti aur aasaan transport mila.
• Zyaada khaana: behtar farming aur naye resources, jaise copper aur phir bronze, se surplus paida hua.
• Cities badhe, craftspeople, traders aur doosre specialists se bhare hue.
• Government: har ek ne economy ko badhaate rehne ke liye rulers, officials aur laws ka apna system banaya.
• Writing pehle anaaj, saamaan aur kaam ka hisaab rakhti thi; baad mein isne laws, prarthanaayein, kahaniyan aur kavitaayein record ki.
• Social layers sabse upar rulers aur priests se lekar sabse neeche mazdooron tak thi.

Kai cheezein jinhe hum aam maan lete hain, 60 minute ke ghante aur 365 din ke saal se lekar likhe hue laws aur standard weights tak, unki jadein inhi Bronze Age civilisations mein hain. Sorter se test karo ki tum periods aur civilisations mein kitna achha farq kar paate ho.