State and Society up to 1000 CE (1000 CE tak State aur Society): Class 9 Social Science Chapter 5 Hinglish mein

5.1 Early Indian state aur society ko samajhna

Socho, aaj se teen hazaar saal baad ek historian tumhare town ki khudaai kar rahi hai. Use toote cups, coins, kuch deewarein aur ek dead battery wala phone milta hai. Inse woh andaaza laga sakti hai ki log kya khaate the aur kaise trade karte the, lekin yeh nahi ki woh kya maante the, apne leaders kaise chunte the ya kis baat par behas karte the. Harappans ke saath hamari problem lagbhag yahi hai, kyunki unki likhaavat abhi tak koi padh nahi paaya. Unke baad ki sadiyon ke liye hum zyada lucky hain: hamare paas texts hain.

Chapter 4 mein tumne insaanon ko sabse purane samay se pehle cities tak follow kiya tha. Yeh chapter kahani ko lagbhag 1000 CE tak le jaata hai. Lagbhag second millennium BCE se, Ṛigveda se shuru karke, literary sources bhi pots, tools aur buildings ke saath evidence ban jaate hain. Dono tarah ke evidence ko saath rakh kar historians ideas, institutions aur rozmarra ki zindagi ke baare mein zyada paine sawaal pooch sakte hain. Padhte samay yeh sawaal dhyaan mein rakho:

• 1000 CE se pehle power kiske paas thi, aur use kaise share kiya jaata tha?
• North aur south mein chhote clans kaise kingdoms aur phir empires ban gaye?
• Kaun se shared ideas, jaise dharma aur poori dharti par ek ruler ka sapna, rulers aur logon ko saath jode rakhte the?
• Families, occupational groups aur officials ne apni jagah kaise paayi aur ek doosre se kaise mile-jule?

Is chapter mein do dhaage saath chalte hain. Ek hai change: clans territorial states bane, states empires bane, aur empires ki jagah strong regional kingdoms aaye (Fig. 5.1). Doosra hai continuity. Kuch ideas kai sadiyon tak bane rahe: dharma, aur chakravarti samrāṭ ka ideal, yaani ek 'wheel-turning' emperor jiski authority dharti ke har kone tak pahunchti hai. Kings is ideal ka prachaar bade rituals se karte the, jaise aśhvamedha yajña, yaani horse sacrifice.

Kings aur empires se milne se pehle, hamein do shabd chahiye jo historians hamesha use karte hain. Apne mohalle ki kisi shaadi ke baare mein socho. Koi law nahi kehta ki kaun kahan baithega, kaun si dishes parosi jaayengi ya kaun se gaane gaaye jaayenge, phir bhi sabko customs pata hain aur zyaadatar log unhe follow karte hain. Customs, rishton aur apnepan ka yeh shared jaal ek society hai. Iske building blocks families aur households hain, aur marriage jaise institutions.

Ab ek traffic signal ke baare mein socho. Ek State mein kisi ke paas aise rules banane ki authority hoti hai, officials unhe laagu karte hain, aur courts aur police rules todne walon se nipat-te hain. Rulers aur subjects ek doosre ke prati kuch zimmedariyan bhi rakhte hain: ruler raksha karta hai aur nyaay karta hai, subject kehna maanta hai aur taxes deta hai. Kisi territory aur uske logon par yeh organised authority State hai.

Societies States se purani hain. Jab groups chhote the, to custom aur kinship se zyaadatar jhagde suljh jaate the. Jaise-jaise groups bade aur complex hote gaye, unhe rules banane, resources ikattha karne aur sabki raksha karne ke liye zyada formal authority ki zaroorat padi, aur dheere-dheere States bane. Historians early sources padh kar trace karte hain ki India mein yeh kaise hua, Vedic age se shuru karke.

5.2 Shuruaat: Vedas

Vedas se shuru kyun karein? Kyunki Harappan script decipher nahi hui hai, isliye Vedas Indian literature ka sabse purana sangrah hain jise hum sach mein padh sakte hain. Kai sadiyon tak inhe likha hi nahi gaya. Teachers inka paath karte the aur pupils inhe syllable-by-syllable yaad karte the, chanting ke khaas tareekon se jo chhoti si galti se bhi bachaate the. Likhe hue manuscripts, jaise Devanagari script mein Ṛigveda ki copies jo libraries aaj sambhaal kar rakhti hain, bahut baad mein aaye.

Ṛigveda ki rachna kab hui? Historians ek mat nahi hain: kuch andaaze fifth millennium BCE tak jaate hain, jabki doosre ise second millennium mein rakhte hain. Kahan ke baare mein woh zyada sehmat hain: subcontinent ke northwest mein, usi broad region mein jahan Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation phali-phooli thi. Ek chhota shared clue dono duniyaon ko jodta hai: Harappans aur Ṛigvedic poets dono copper jaante the.

Vedas chaar hain, aur har ek ka yajña mein alag kaam tha, yaani pavitra aag mein aahuti dene ka ritual.

Har Veda mein aage chaar layers hain, jo lambe samay mein jodi gayi (Fig. 5.2). Pehli layer se aakhri tak padhte hue tum ritual se philosophy ki taraf badhte ho.

Historians Vedas ko evidence ki tarah padhte hain. Ṛigveda ke sabse purane hymns Sapta-Sindhu, yaani 'saat nadiyon ki dharti', ki nadiyon ke naam lete hain: Indus (Sindhu), Punjab ki paanch nadiyan aur Sarasvatī. Hymns mein cattle aur chariots, ladaaiyon aur assemblies, baarish ki prayers aur duniya kaise shuru hui jaise sawaalon ki baat bhi hai. Isliye yeh hamein apne samay ki economy, politics, beliefs aur social life ke baare mein batate hain. Kai Vedic prayers, rituals aur ideas aaj bhi Indian life ka hissa hain, aur isi wajah se Vedas ko Indian culture ki ek neenv maana jaata hai.

5.3 State aur administration

Vedic age mein log kaise tay karte the ki unka leader kaun hoga, unke jhagde kaun suljhaayega ya unhe war mein kaun le jaayega? Aur jab clans kingdoms bane aur kingdoms empires, to yeh jawaab kaise badle? Yeh section lagbhag do hazaar saal tak is kahani ko follow karta hai.

5.3.1 Vedic period mein political institutions

Early Vedic age mein log khud ko sabse pehle kisi territory ke nivaasi nahi maante the. Woh ek jana ke the, yaani kinship se jude ek clan ya log. Ṛigveda lagbhag tees janas ke naam leta hai. Inmein se paanch, Yadu, Turvaśha, Puru, Anu aur Druhyu, ko saath mein pañchajana, yaani 'paanch log', kaha jaata hai.

Jana ka leader rājā tha. In early times mein woh crowned emperor se zyada ek chief jaisa tha. Uska main kaam war mein clan ko lead karna aur uske logon aur cattle ko surakshit rakhna tha. Woh sab kuch akele tay nahi karta tha: Ṛigveda aur Atharvaveda teen assemblies ka zikr karte hain jinmein jana ke members milte the.

5.3.2 Early kingdoms aur republics

Aaj kisi se poochho ki woh kahan se hai, to woh ek jagah ka naam lega: ek gaon, ek town, ek state. Early Vedic age mein jawaab ek jana hota: 'Main Purus mein se hoon' ya 'Bharatas mein se'. Lagbhag 1000 BCE aur 600 BCE ke beech yeh badalne laga. Janapada shabd dikhata hai kaise: iska matlab hai woh jagah jahan ek jana ne apna pair rakha. Ab apnepan ka ek family tree ke saath ek address bhi tha.

Zameen ne naye sawaal khade kiye. Yeh khet kiske hain? Is raaste ko kaun use kar sakta hai? Iski raksha karne wale soldiers ka kharcha kaun dega? Inke jawaab ke liye officials, armies, records aur taxes chahiye the. Lagbhag 600 BCE se us samay ke texts is tarah ke bade states ka varnan karte hain, yaani mahājanapadas ya 'mahaan janapadas' (Fig. 5.4).

Buddhist aur Jaina texts aam taur par solah mahājanapadas ginaate hain. Neeche diye aaj ke regions tumhe India ke outline map par unhe lagaane mein madad karenge.

• East (aaj ka Bihar aur eastern Uttar Pradesh): Anga, Magadha, Vṛijji, Malla, Kāśhī aur Kosala.
• Upper Ganga–Yamuna aur central India (aaj ka Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan aur Madhya Pradesh): Kuru, Pañchāla, Śhūrasena, Matsya, Vatsa, Chedi aur Avanti.
• Northwest (ab zyaadatar Pakistan aur Afghanistan mein): Gandhāra aur Kamboja.
• Deccan (Godavari par): Aśhmaka.

In sab mein Magadha, jo aaj ke south Bihar mein hai, sabse taakatwar bana. Uske paas achhi fasal ke liye upjaau river plains the, aur forests the jo uski army ke liye lakdi aur haathi dete the. Paas ki pahadiyon mein iron ore tha, aur Ganga aur Son jaisi nadiyan transport aur defence ke kaam aati thi. Mahatvakanshi rulers ne in faaydon se apne padosiyon ko mila liya. Aakhir mein Magadha Mauryan Empire ka base bana, jiski neenv 321 BCE mein padi, aur jo subcontinent ke tab tak ke sabse bade aur taakatwar states mein se ek tha.

Vedic culture ka heartland bhi badla, early hymns ki Indus–Sarasvatī dharti se baad ke texts ke Ganga plain tak. Wahan lagbhag 600 BCE tak badi fasalein, bade states aur zyada complex social rules saath-saath chale.

Har state mein king nahi hota tha. Monarchies, jinhe rājyas kehte the, ke saath gaṇas ya saṁghas bhi the. Gaṇa mein power pramukh families ke ek group ke paas hoti thi, jinke mukhiya ek assembly mein milte aur saath mil kar faisle lete the. Vṛijji confederacy, jiski capital Vaiśhālī thi, aur Śhākyas, woh clan jismein Gautama Buddha ka janm hua, jaane-maane examples hain.

Aur south mein, Mauryas ke baad, Satavāhanas ne lagbhag paanch sau saal tak Deccan ke bade hisse par raaj kiya, lagbhag 2nd century BCE se 3rd century CE tak. Aśhoka ke inscriptions uski southern seema ke paar kai independent logon ke naam lete hain. Cholas ke paas lower Kaveri valley thi aur Pandyas ke paas Tamraparni aur Vaigai ki valleys. Keralaputras ko Kerala ke Cheras maana jaata hai, aur Satiyaputras ko aaj ke Tamil Nadu ke north mein rakha jaata hai.

5.3.3 King ke kartavya aur ideals

Lagbhag 6th century BCE se rulers apne region ki paramparaon ke hisaab se rājā, mahārāja ya samrāṭ jaise bade titles use karne lage. Bade titles ka matlab yeh nahi tha ki ruler jo chahe kar sake. Early Indian texts saaf batate hain ki ek achha ruler apne logon ke prati kya zimmedari rakhta tha:

• Arthaśhāstra (Kauṭilya): king ko khud energetic aur mehnati hona chahiye, kyunki uske officers upar jo mehnat dekhte hain wahi copy karte hain.
• Yajurveda, coronation oath: naya king vaada karta hai ki woh taakatwar aur kamzor dono ka ek hi standard se nyaay karega, dharti ko har aafat se bachaayega aur logon ki bhalaai ke liye kaam karega.
• Mahābhārata ka Śhānti Parva: rulers ko ethical conduct, nyaay aur apne subjects ke prati zimmedariyon par lambi salaah.

Do kaam sabse pehle the. Protector ke roop mein king invaders se kingdom ki raksha karta aur andar shaanti banaye rakhta. Judge ke roop mein woh sabse gambhir shikaayatein sunta: chori ya loot, apharan, adultery. Sabse gambhir aparaadhon ke liye, jaise king se gaddaari, gaay ko maarna ya nashe wali sharaab peena, texts bahut kadi sazaa batate hain, kabhi-kabhi maut bhi.

Kya king ka throne hamesha surakshit tha? Aam taur par beta pita ke baad aata tha. Lekin sources aise kings ka zikr bhi karte hain jinhe unke logon ne chuna, aur kuch aise jinhe nikaal diya gaya. Yaani royal power ki seemaayein thi, aur throne hamesha apne aap aage nahi jaata tha.

Early Indian rulers bahut bade paimaane par bhi sochte the. Ek chhote kingdom ka king bhi poore subcontinent ko ek political space ki tarah sochta tha, aur sources ke kai shabd yeh idea dikhate hain.

Inscriptions aur texts dikhate hain ki yeh idea kaise kaam karta tha. Ek edict mein Aśhoka kehte hain ki unki apni koshish (Prakrit mein pakama, Sanskrit mein parākrama) se poore Jambudvīpa ke logon ki religious aur moral life mein sach mein badlaav aaya. Arthaśhāstra prithivi ko Himalaya se samudra tak faili dharti batata hai, aur use chakravarti ka kṣhetra maanta hai. Door south mein, Sangam poems Chera king Nedunjeral Adan ki tareef karte hain, jinhone adhirāja ka darja paaya aur kaha jaata hai ki apni jeet ko Himalaya tak le gaye. Bahut baad mein, 11th century CE mein, Chola king Rajendra I ne apni armies ke Ganga tak pahunchne ke baad Gangaikonda, yaani 'Ganga ko lene wala', ka title liya. Baar-baar Indian kingship poore subcontinent par authority ke sapne ki taraf lautti rahi.

5.3.4 Council of ministers

Purane vichaarak khud State ko kaise dekhte the? Arthaśhāstra ke lekhak Kauṭilya ne saat cheezein ginaayi jo har State ko chahiye, aur unhe uske ang (aṅgas) kaha, yaani saptāṅga, jaise State ek sharir ho (Fig. 5.5). Tooti taang wala sharir theek se chal nahi sakta; khaali treasury ya bewafa ministers wale kingdom par theek se shaasan nahi ho sakta.

Koi king akele shaasan nahi karta tha. Uske sabse kareebi madadgaar mantri-pariṣhad, yaani council of ministers, banate the: kuch senior, anubhavi log jo use salaah dete the. Ek meeting socho. King ke aas-paas treasury ka rakhwala, taxes collect karne ka officer, law ka expert aur army ka head baithe hain. Har koi apne field par bolta hai. Aśhoka ka ek edict dikhata hai ki emperor ke door hone par council royal orders par charcha karti thi, aur uske vichaar turant unhe bheje jaane the. Yaani khaas haalaat mein council public interest mein khud bhi kaam kar sakti thi.

5.3.5 Empires ka administration kaise hota tha?

Ek bada kingdom ek palace se nahi chalaaya ja sakta. Neeche se shuru karo. Deccan ke Satavāhana kingdom mein har gaon ka ek mukhiya hota tha, grāmika. Gaon ko āhāras mein group kiya jaata tha, yaani administrative divisions, har ek ke apne amātyas (officials) ke saath. Aakhri faisla king ka hota tha, phir bhi shaasan ka zyaadatar rozana kaam usse door hota tha. District governors, jaise early records ke pradeśhikas, judge bhi the aur administrator bhi. Faisla lene se pehle ek district officer aksar town ke bankers, caravan leaders, craftsmen aur scribes ke saath baithta tha. Bade shehron ke apne governors hote the jo revenue collect karte aur galiyon mein police ka kaam dekhte.

Lagbhag 300 se 800 CE tak kingdoms zyada decentralised ho gaye: capital se door officials aur local bodies ke paas zyada power aa gayi. Rājya ko provinces mein baanta gaya, provinces ko chhoti units mein, aur aise hi neeche gaon tak. Levels har jagah lagbhag same the, lekin north aur south mein unke naam alag the (Fig. 5.7). Provincial governors aur district officers ka ek bada staff poora dhaancha chalaata tha.

Guptas ne purane system ka bada hissa banaye rakha. Arthaśhāstra ki tarah mantri civil government ka head tha. Senior posts mein army ka commander-in-chief, ek general, aur palace guard ka incharge officer bhi the. Ek nayi post aayi: sāndhivigrahika, yaani peace aur war ka minister, jo doosre kingdoms ke saath alliances aur wars sambhaalta tha. Kumārāmātyas naam ke officials provinces aur districts ka kaam chalaate the, jo Kauṭilya ke zamaane ki purani amātya class ki ek nayi shaakha thi.

Bengal mein Damodarpur mein mili copper plates Kumāragupta I ke samay ek Gupta district office ko kaam karte dikhati hain. Ismein paanch members the. Head district officer ke saath chaar pramukh townsmen baithte the: town ka chief banker, caravan merchants ka head, sabse pramukh artisan aur senior scribe, jo land aur revenue records rakhta tha. Is tarah bankers, merchants aur craftspeople ki local government mein awaaz thi.

South mein Pallavas (c. 275–897 CE) ne Kāñchīpuram se raaj kiya. King sabse upar tha, lekin gaon bahut kuch khud sambhaalte the. Kingdom ko level-by-level provinces, districts, taluks aur aakhir mein gaon mein baanta gaya tha. Pallavas ko brahmadeya gaon ke liye yaad kiya jaata hai: Brahmins ko tax-free di gayi zameen. Village assembly apna kaam variyams naam ki chhoti committees mein baantti thi: ek irrigation dekh sakti thi, doosri gardens, teesri temple.

Badami ke Chālukyas (c. 543–753 CE) ne bhi apna kingdom lagbhag isi tarah chalaaya, ek monarch, decentralised government aur khud ko manage karne wali village assemblies ke saath. Brahmins ko land grant ka unka roop agrahāram tha, aur Aihole aur Badami jaisi jagahein seekhne ke mashhoor kendra ban gayi.

Lagbhag 8th se 10th century CE tak Gurjara-Pratihāras ne north aur west ke bade hisse par control rakha, mainly Kannauj se raaj karte hue, jo aaj ke Uttar Pradesh mein hai. Kannauj itna keemti inaam tha ki teen powers pidhiyon tak iske liye lade: Pratihāras, Bengal aur Bihar ke Pālas, aur Deccan ke Rāṣhṭrakūṭas. Historians ise tripartite struggle kehte hain. Teeno provinces, districts aur gaon ke zariye shaasan karte the, aur in bade kingdoms mein bhi gaon zyaadatar apni sadkein aur tanks, zaroorat-mandon ki madad, aur padhai khud sambhaalte the.

Early Cholas aur unke mashhoor king Karikala se tum pichhli classes mein mil chuke ho. Imperial Cholas (9th–11th century CE) achhe administration aur revenue collection ke liye jaane jaate hain. Unka empire maṇḍalams (provinces), valanāḍus (districts), nāḍus (gaon ke groups) aur ūrs (gaon) mein bata tha. Village assemblies khud kamaal ka kaam karti thi: jhagde suljhaati, revenue collect karti, zameen aur irrigation manage karti, sadkein banati aur records rakhti, zyaadatar bina royal madad ke.

5.4 Ethics: law aur life ki neenv

Laws logon ko batate hain ki unhe kya karna hi hai; ethics poochhta hai ki unhe kya karna chahiye, tab bhi jab koi dekh nahi raha. Indian vichaarak bahut pehle se is par sochte rahe, aur unke jawaabon ne rulers aur aam logon dono ko raah dikhaayi. Sabse purane texts bhi bade sawaal poochhte hain. Asli kya hai? Sab kuch kahan se aaya? Ek achha insaan kaise jiye? Bhagavad Gītā aakhri sawaal ka jawaab ek aise raaste se deti hai jo gyaan, shraddha, karm aur sadgun ko jodta hai.

Ek key idea hai samatva, yaani 'samaanta'. Mitti ke baare mein socho: ghade, cups aur diye alag dikhte hain, lekin sab mitti hain. Isi tarah samatva kehta hai ki saare sharir ek hi tarah ke matter se bane hain aur saare mann ek hi supreme consciousness ke roop hain. Vedas is consciousness ko satya (asli) aur ṛita (sahi) kehte hain, sab kuch ka chhupa hua srot. Agar aisa hai, to kisi ko neecha dekhna galti hai. Epics yeh baat kahaniyon se samjhaate hain: Mahābhārata mein har varṇa ke log samatva ka paksh lete hain, aur ek achhe insaan ya ruler ko is baat se aanka jaata hai ki woh har jeev ki kitni parwaah karta hai.

Ṛita, Ṛigveda mein milne wala ek concept, woh order hai jo sab kuch mein chalta hai: suraj ka samay par ugna, mausamon ka ek ke baad ek aana, nadiyon ka samudra tak behna. Yeh nature ko balance mein rakhta hai, moral values ko banaye rakhta hai aur maana jaata tha ki yeh human society ko bhi balance mein rakhega.

Nyaay dharma se gehraai se juda hai. Is arth mein dharma religion ka shabd nahi hai. Iska matlab hai duty, obligation, righteousness aur moral conduct: aisi zindagi jo sabse pehle ethics se chale, jismein har insaan woh kare jo uska role aur zimmedariyan maangti hain. Buddhist texts bahut milte-julte ethical ideas ke liye Pāli shabd dhamma use karte hain (Fig. 5.9).

Ethics sirf rishiyon ke liye nahi tha. Aśhoka ke edicts ne apne subjects se dhamma follow karne ko kaha: maata-pita aur buzurgon ka samman karo, naukaron aur workers se achha bartaav karo, hinsa se bacho aur saare jeevon par daya karo. Ek hazaar saal se bhi zyada baad, Uttaramerur inscription ne village assembly ke candidates ke liye imaandaari se kamaayi daulat aur saaf character zaroori kiya. Rulers ke liye salaah ki kitabon mein bhi yahi sandesh tha. Kāmandaka ka Nītisāra statecraft ki guide hai, aur Bāṇabhaṭṭa ki Kādambarī, 7th century ki ek prose romance jise aksar duniya ke pehle novels mein se ek kaha jaata hai, mein kingship par vichaar hain. Baar-baar Indian soch ne political power ko ethics se joda.

5.5 Social structures aur rozmarra ki zindagi

5.5.1 Varṇa aur jāti

Agar tum early Vedic times mein kisi se poochhte 'Tum kaun ho?', to shayad ek saath kai jawaab milte. Pichhli classes mein tum varṇa system se mil chuke ho, uske chaar hisson ke saath: brāhmaṇas, kṣhatriyas, vaiśhyas aur śhūdras. Phir bhi early Vedic texts sirf janm se tay hone wala darja nahi dikhate. Ek insaan ko kai overlapping labels se jaana ja sakta tha: uske log ya sub-group, region, gaon, gotra (kin group) aur bhasha, aur sabse badh kar uska kaam. Aise labels groups ko alag karte the, lekin trade, kaam aur shared customs unhe baar-baar saath laate rahe. Kaam abhi families ke andar band nahi hue the.

Ṛigveda ka ek jaana-maana verse (9.112.3) iski ek jhalak deta hai. Poet apni family ka parichay deta hai: woh khud ek kāru hai, yaani hymns banane wala; uske pita ek bhiṣhak hain, yaani healer; aur uski maa patthar par anaaj peesti hai. Ek ghar ke teen log teen alag tarah ka kaam karte hain, aur poet kehta hai ki sab apne-apne tareeke se samriddhi dhoondh rahe hain.

Chaar social categories ka sabse pehla zikr, jinhe historians varṇas maante hain, Puruṣhasūkta mein aata hai, jo Ṛigveda ki tenth book ka ek hymn hai, yaani uske baad ke hisson mein se ek. Samay ke saath har varṇa ko khaas roles se joda gaya:

• Brāhmaṇas: Vedas aur doosri pavitra kitabein seekhna aur sikhaana, yajñas karwaana, aur gifts (dāna) dena aur lena dono.
• Kṣhatriyas (early texts mein rājanya): ladna, logon ki raksha karna aur nyaay dena, saath hi scriptures padhna, yajñas karwaana, gifts dena aur social order banaye rakhna.
• Vaiśhyas: kheti, pashupaalan aur trade, saath mein padhai, rituals aur daan.
• Śhūdras: in se baaki teeno ki seva ki ummeed ki jaati thi, halaanki asal mein woh kheti, pashupaalan, trade aur arts aur crafts bhi karte the.

Yeh ranking values ke baare mein kuch kehti thi: seekhna power se zyada maayne rakhta tha, aur power paise se zyada. Tumhari textbook is division ko functional batati hai: yeh us kaam ke baare mein tha jo har group society ke liye karta tha. Ek Buddhist text, Sutta Nipāta, ise saaf kehta hai: insaan apne karmon se brāhmaṇa, ya outcaste, banta hai, janm se nahi. Lekin sadiyon ke saath yeh lachilapan dheere-dheere kam hota gaya.

Varṇas ke saath jātis kyun aayi? Teen taakatein kaam kar rahi thi. Varṇa ki seemaaon ke paar shaadiyon se naye groups bane. Nayi jagah base migrant communities aksar sirf aapas mein shaadi karti thi, jise endogamy kehte hain, aur is tarah alag groups ban gayi. Aur region aur territory ke farq ne groups ko alag rakha. Varṇas chaar hi rahe, lekin jātis bina kisi seema ke badh sakti thi: har naya craft ya community ek aur jāti ban sakti thi.

5.5.2 Social mobility

Varṇa aur jāti lohe ke pinjre nahi the; log aur groups unke andar aur unke paar aa-ja sakte the, aur aate-jaate bhi the. Iska sabse saaf sign bilkul upar dikhta hai. Ruling dynasties kai social backgrounds se aayi; inmein Guptas, Mauryas, Nandas, Puṣhyabhūtis, Satavāhanas, Śhuṅgas aur Vākāṭakas the.

Occupations bhi badle. Mandsaur (purana Daśapura, aaj ke Madhya Pradesh mein) ka 473 CE ka ek inscription silk weavers ki ek guild ki kahani batata hai jo Gupta shaasan ke dauraan Gujarat ke Lāṭa se wahan aayi. Iske members sirf weavers nahi the: kuch kushal archers bane, kuch astrologers, aur kuch ne aur bhi pesha apnaaye. Guild itni ameer thi ki usne apni kamaai se Sun god ka ek temple banaya aur dashakon baad uski marammat bhi karwaayi.

Doosre records brāhmaṇas ko zameen ke managers ke roop mein kaam karte dikhate hain. Ek example hai Karitalai mein mile Mahārāja Jayanātha ke copper plates, late 5th century CE ke. (Copper-plate grant ek royal order hota hai jo copper ki patli sheets par khoda jaata hai, aur aam taur par royal seal wali ek ring se jodi jaati hain.)

Tamil south mein bhi seemaayein dhundhli dikhti hain. Grammar Tolkāppiyam society ka chaar-hisson wala division batata hai. Yeh Arasar (kings), Antanar (brāhmaṇas, jinhe aksar kings aur elites ka sahaara milta tha), Vanigar (traders) aur Velar (farmers) jaise groups ke naam leta hai. Lekin iski categories occupation par based lagti hain, aur unki seemaayein dheeli thi. Paṭṭinappālai, ek vyast port ke baare mein ek lambi poem, merchants, namak banane walon, machhuaaron, artisans, farmers aur warriors ki bheed bhari tasveer deti hai jo saath-saath kaam karte hain. Aisi jagah par tum rozi-roti ke liye kya karte ho, yeh kisi tay category se zyada maayne rakhta tha.

5.5.3 Family aur society

Vedic society mein sabse chhoti aur buniyaadi unit kula thi, yaani family. Kai families milkar ek grāma, yaani gaon, banati thi. Kai grāmas ko group karo to ek viśha banta hai, jiska head viśhapati tha. Viśha ke upar jana tha, jiska mukhya rakshak rājā tha. Ek ke andar ek rakhe boxes ki tarah, family hamesha bade jana ka hissa thi (Fig. 5.10).

Later Vedic period tak kula ka matlab kinship se jude kai members wala ghar ho gaya. Gotra ek badi lineage thi jo ek common ancestor tak jaati thi, aam taur par ek Vedic rishi (ṛiṣhi). Gotras patrilineal the: family ki pehchaan aur virasat purush line se neeche jaati thi. Gotra membership aksar tay karti thi ki insaan kisse shaadi kar sakta hai.

Insaan ke kartavya sirf varṇa par nahi, balki life ke stage, yaani āśhrama, par bhi nirbhar the. Ideal life ke chaar stages the, har ek ka apna dharma (Fig. 5.11). Soch yeh thi ki jo har stage ko poori tarah jiye (seekhna, phir family paalna, phir peeche hatna, phir sab chhod dena), woh har tarah se santusht hoga, aur society balance mein rahegi. Rituals is raaste ko mark karte the, sabse badh kar ṣhoḍaśha saṁskāras, yaani solah rites of passage jo janm se pehle se maut ke baad tak chalte hain.

Life ke chaar lakshya bhi the, yaani puruṣhārthas. Paisa kamaana theek hai, jab tak woh imaandaari se aur doosron ko nuksaan pahunchaaye bina ho. Isi tarah artha (daulat) aur kāma (ichchha) achhe lakshya hain jab woh dharma se chalein aur society ki bhalaai karein. Chaar lakshyon mein se dharma aur mokṣha ko life ko disha dene wala maana jaata tha.

5.5.4 Women ki bhoomika

Parampara ke hisaab se Ṛigveda ke kuch hymns women seers ne rache the, jinmein Apālā, Viśhvavārā, Ghoṣhā aur Lopāmudrā shaamil hain. Vedic period ke texts women ko padhte, kabhi-kabhi purushon ke saath rituals karte, chariot races mein hissa lete aur sabhā jaisi sabhaaon mein jaate bhi dikhate hain. Lagta hai ki women ka samman tha aur woh public life mein active thi. Uṣha, yaani dawn, aur Aditi, yaani devtaaon ki maa, jaisi goddesses ka Vedic religion mein samman ka sthaan tha.

Baad ke texts mein bhi women ke liye samman dikhta hai. Manusmṛiti ka ek jaana-maana aadha verse kehta hai ki jahan women ka samman hota hai, wahan devta prasann rehte hain:

Iska doosra aadha hissa jodta hai ki jahan women ka samman nahi hota, wahan har pavitra karm bekaar jaata hai. Baad ki sadiyan women ke liye aksar zyada kathin rahi: social aur political haalaat badalne ke saath kai women ne woh aazaadiyan kho di jo early texts mein dikhti hain. Phir bhi ghar, khet, workshops aur temples unke kaam par tike the.

Ek rani dikhati hai ki ek royal woman kitni power rakh sakti thi. Prabhāvatī Gupta, Gupta emperor Chandragupta II ki beti, ne apne chhote beton ki regent ban kar Vākāṭaka kingdom par raaj kiya. Unhone apne naam se jaari grants se zameen bhi di. Usi Gupta–Vākāṭaka yug (lagbhag 4th se 6th centuries CE) ke plays aur poems women ko padhi-likhi aur arts mein nipun dikhate hain. Aur Mauryas ke baad ki sadiyon ke kai votive inscriptions women ko donors ke roop mein naam se batate hain.

Sangam poems women ko southern economy ke kendra mein dikhate hain: coast par machhli pakadna aur namak banana, soot kaatna, cattle sambhaalna, maalaayein bechna, aur dhaan ke kheton mein ropai, nirai, kutai aur fatkana. Women poets ka bahut samman tha, jaise Avvaiyar aur Vennikuyattiyar, jo pesha se kumhaar thi. Women bards aur dancers, apne male saathiyon ki tarah, geet aur kahaniyan poore desh mein le jaati thi aur uski culture ko shape karne mein madad karti thi. Bahut baad mein, Chola inscriptions Sembiyan Mahādevī jaisi royal women ko record karte hain, jinhone temples aur religious institutions banaye aur unhe sahaara diya.

5.5.5 Religious life aur Bhakti ka uday

Vedic religion mein devtaaon ki koi sakht seedhi nahi thi: alag hymns alag deities ko sabse mahaan bata kar unki stuti karte hain. Log prayers aur yajñas se unki pooja karte the, aahuti dete hue, zyaadatar pavitra aag mein. Har deity ek natural force ka prateek thi: suraj ke liye Sūrya, aag ke liye Agni, baarish aur toofan ke liye Indra, dharti ke liye Pṛithvī aur dawn ke liye Uṣha. Inmein se kuch purani practices aaj bhi tyohaaron mein zinda hain. Chhath mein families doobte aur ugte suraj ko arghya deti hain, aur Makar Sankranti suraj ke ek naye zodiac sign mein pravesh ko mark karti hai. Jinki zindagi monsoon aur suraj par tiki thi, unke paas unhe shraddha se dekhne ki achhi wajah thi. Vedic soch mein nadiyon, aag aur dawn ka samman aur dekhbhaal karni thi, sirf use nahi karna tha, aur yeh soch climate change ke is daur mein hamse baat karti hai.

Aisi pooja socho jismein na priest chahiye, na mehnga fire ritual, na Sanskrit ka gyaan: sirf apne bhagwan se prem, apni bhasha mein gaaya hua. Yahi Bhakti ka dil hai, yaani apne chune hue deity ke prati premmay bhakti, jo har kisi ke liye khuli hai, chahe uska social group ya gender kuch bhi ho. Yeh tab badhi jab Vedic parampara mein pooja personal gods aur goddesses par kendrit hone lagi, jinmein Viṣhṇu, Śhiva aur Śhakti shaamil hain. Iski jadein Mahābhārata jaise texts tak jaati hain. Lekin Bhakti lagbhag 6th century CE se Tamil region mein Āḻvārs aur Nāyanmārs ke zariye ek organised, door tak faila movement bani.

Baarah Āḻvārs ne Viṣhṇu ke geet gaaye aur tirsath Nāyanmārs ne Śhiva ke. Unke Tamil hymns bhakti poetry ka ek vishaal khazaana hain aur us yug ki mahaan uplabdhiyon mein gine jaate hain. Tumhari textbook ka Part 2 Bhakti parampara par wapas aata hai.

5.5.6 Gyaan ki talaash

Achhi education se kya banta tha? Sirf ek kushal insaan nahi, balki ek achha insaan. Teachers andar ke gun banane ki koshish karte the: sachchai, vinamrata, dhairya, self-control, niyamit aadatein, shuddh mann (sattvaśhuddhi), yeh ehsaas ki life aur nature ek hain, aur saare jeevon ka samman. Pupils ko dharma se jeena sikhaaya jaata tha, yaani maata-pita, teachers aur devtaaon ke prati apna kartavya nibhaana, kyunki maana jaata tha ki society apne members ke character par tiki hai.

Education practical bhi thi. Vedas ke alaawa pupils mathematics, astronomy, medicine aur sciences padhte the, saath hi grammar, logic, philosophy aur ethics bhi. Kai ko music, dance, painting, physical exercise aur archery jaise martial skills ki training milti thi. Yoga, meditation aur teacher ki seva rozana routine ka hissa the, isliye pupil kaam ke gyaan ke saath jeene ki aadatein bhi le kar jaata tha.

Teacher aur pupil ka rishta, guru-śhiṣhya paramparā, pavitra maana jaata tha. Teacher, jise guru ya āchārya kehte the, ka samman us insaan ki tarah hota tha jo pupil ko agyaan se gyaan ki taraf le jaata hai, jaise ek diya andhere se bahar le jaata hai. Gurukula shabd ka matlab hai teacher ki family, aur yeh sach mein wahi tha. Pupils teacher ke ghar mein rehte, saath khaana khaate aur ghar ke kaam mein madad karte, jabki teacher maata-pita ki tarah unki dekhbhaal karta. Din ek sakht routine par chalte the, aur self-control, aagyaapaalan aur shraddha ki ummeed ki jaati thi. Gurukula ki tasveeron mein aam taur par pupils ek khule aangan mein apne teacher ke charon taraf baithe dikhte hain, paas mein ek saadhi kutiya aur ped.

1000 CE se bahut pehle poore subcontinent mein padhai ke bade kendra ban chuke the, aur kuch mein China aur doosre door ke deshon se students aate the. Kuch sabse mashhoor neeche diye gaye hain. Doosron mein Odantapurī, Jagaddalā, Sompura, Ahichchhatra, Ennayiram, Saloṭgī, Thrissur aur Śhāradā Pīṭha, aur aaj ke Sri Lanka mein Anurādhapura shaamil the.

Dynasties aayi aur gayi, lekin kitabein unse zyada jeeyi. Indian lekhakon ne lagbhag har subject par rachnaayein likhi, philosophy aur grammar se medicine, mathematics, astronomy, nirmaan, kheti aur khaana banane tak, aur yeh paramparaayein sadiyon tak aage badhti rahi.

5.6 Economy

5.6.1 Agriculture aur land revenue

Palaces, armies aur temples ka kharcha kaun uthaata tha? Zyaadatar farming. Ek Mauryan gaon se guzro to teen tarah ki zameen milti: family holdings mein bante khet, common pastures jahan sabki cattle charti thi, aur kinaaron par pedon ke baag. Uske paar forest tha. State forest ko kheti ki zameen banane ka ichchhuk tha, kyunki zyada khet ka matlab zyada tax tha, lekin usne kuch forests ko legal protection bhi di. Officials is saari economic activity par kadi nazar rakhte the.

Ek farmer kitna deta tha? Aam taur par zameen ki upaj ka chhatha hissa (one-sixth). Saari zameen ek jaisi nahi thi, isliye officials use grade karte the: Kauṭilya ki list boye aur jote gaye kheton se lekar parti ya banjar zameen, oonchi sookhi zameen aur baagon tak jaati hai. Crops region ke hisaab se alag thi: gehun, daalein aur kai tarah ke chawal; sarson aur alsi jaise oilseeds; ganna aur kesar; aur phal aur sabziyan.

Mauryas ke baad bhi farming gaon aur treasury dono ka pet bharti rahi. Buddhist text Milindapañho, jo paramparik roop se monk Nāgasena se juda hai, kheti ke kaam ke aath stages ginaata hai, khet taiyaar karne aur nirai se lekar fasal kaatne aur fatakne tak. Jaise-jaise Deccan mein kheti faili, uski kaali mitti, jo cotton ke liye bahut achhi hai, ne shayad zyada cotton ugaane ko badhava diya. Standard Sanskrit shabdkosh, Amarakoṣha, mein forests, crops, plants aur khaad par ek khaas section hai.

Sangam poems south ko upjaau aur upaj se bhara dikhate hain. Woh Chera desh ko kathal, kaali mirch aur haldi se bharpoor batate hain, aur ragi aur ganne ke kheton ki baat karte hain.

5.6.2 Irrigation

Farming paani par nirbhar thi, isliye rulers reservoirs, canals aur dams ko gambhirta se lete the. Junagadh ki chattaan yaad hai? Us par Rudradāman ka inscription Saurāṣhṭra (Gujarat ka Kathiawar region) mein Girnar ke paas Sudarśhana lake ka itihaas batata hai. Lake pehli baar Chandragupta Maurya ke samay unke provincial governor Puṣhyagupta ne dhaaraon par dam bana kar banayi thi. Yaani Mauryan state irrigation works banane mein active tha. Baad ke rulers aise works ki marammat karte rahe, kyunki farming unke revenue ke sabse bade sources mein se ek thi.

5.6.3 Trade: trade routes aur ports

Merchants ko surakshit sadkein, imaandaar baat (weights) aur fair markets chahiye, aur ek strong state teeno de sakta hai. Arthaśhāstra trade ko ek badi economic activity maanta hai. Yeh batata hai ki Magadha ke merchants north, central aur south India ke regions mein kapda, keemti patthar, moti aur moonga, dhaatuein aur minerals bhejte the. Namak, jo rozana ki zaroorat hai, state ke sakht control mein banta tha. Officials se ummeed thi ki woh trade routes ki raksha karein, saamaan mein milaavat karne walon ko sazaa dein aur khareedaaron ko dhokhe se bachaayein.

Subcontinent ke andar, aur uske bahar, trade Harappan times tak jaata hai. Lagbhag 6th century BCE tak do bade land routes ban chuke the. Uttarāpatha, yaani northern road, northwest se Bay of Bengal ki taraf Ganga plain ko paar karta tha. Dakṣhiṇāpatha, yaani southern road, Ganga valley se Deccan ki taraf jaata tha. Baad ki dynasties ne dono ko banaye rakha aur aage badhaaya. Routes regions ke beech saamaan, log aur ideas le jaate the, aur andar ke shehron ko ports se jodte the, jisse land trade sea trade se jud gaya (Fig. 5.13).

Ports ne India ko samudra ki taraf khidki di. Harappan traders pehle hi western coast ke ports se Persian Gulf ke raaste Mesopotamia tak jahaaz le ja chuke the. Baad mein naye ports Indian aur videshi merchants se vyast ho gaye. Inmein Kerala coast par Muziris, Kaveri ke muhaane par Kāveripaṭṭinam (Puhar), aaj ke Puducherry ke paas Arikameḍu aur Andhra coast par Masulipaṭnam the. Jahaaz coast ke kinaare-kinaare chalte the ya khula Indian Ocean paar karte the. Early centuries CE tak Roman world ke saath trade zor par tha, samudra se bhi aur Central Asia ke raaste zameen se bhi. Tumhari textbook ke Part 2 mein in rishton par ek poora chapter hai, 'India and the World – 1'.

5.6.4 Guilds

Aaj doctors ya chartered accountants ki professional bodies hoti hain jo apne members ke liye standards tay karti hain. Early India mein craftspeople aur traders ke liye kuch aisa hi tha: guild, yaani śhreṇī, ek hi craft ya trade karne walon ka sangathan, jaise weavers, potters, ivory carvers ya merchants. Guilds khaas taur par lagbhag 6th century BCE mein mahājanapadas ke uday ke baad important hui, wahi period jab metal coins, chaandi ke punch-marked coins se shuru karke, chalan mein aaye. Jātaka kahaniyan aathaarah tarah ki guilds ka zikr karti hain, jo dikhata hai ki woh kitni achhi tarah jami hui thi.

Ek guild kai kaam karti thi. Woh check karti ki saamaan achha bana hai aur aksar daam tay karti, jisse banane wale aur khareedne wale dono surakshit rehte. Professional rules todne wale members ko discipline karne ke liye woh apni court chalaati thi. Aur woh bank, lender aur trustee ka kaam karti thi, doosron ka paisa sambhaal kar.

Kapda early India ke bade udyogon mein se ek tha. Weavers kai techniques se silk, cotton, wool aur linen mein kaam karte the, aur Mathurā, Kāśhī aur northeast mein Kāmarūpa apne kapdon ke liye mashhoor the. Bharpoor raw materials aur kushal, mehnati artisans ke saath, Guptas se pehle ki sadiyon mein crafts badhte rahe, aur baad ki samriddhi ki neenv rakhi. Mandsaur jaisi silk weavers ki guilds dikhati hain ki yeh udyog kitna organised tha, aur texts aur inscriptions saamaan le jaane wale kai tarah ke merchants ka zikr karte hain.

Peeche mud kar dekhein

Ṛigveda ke clans se Cholas ki village committees tak, is chapter ne lagbhag do hazaar saal follow kiye. Political units kin groups se empires aur phir strong regional kingdoms tak bade hue, aur shaasan ke tareeke zyada complex hote gaye. Phir bhi dynasties ke saare badlaavon ke beech bahut kuch chalta raha. India ek dharti hai yeh idea, dharma aur nyaay bhare shaasan ke ideals, Indian bhashaaon mein gaayi bhakti, suraj ka samman karne wale tyohaar, aur local self-government ki aadat, in sab ki jadein in sadiyon mein hain.