Class 9 · Social Science · English medium · Part 1
Understanding Society: India and Beyond Part 1: Class 9 Social Science companion
An interactive companion to Understanding Society: India and Beyond (Grade 9 social science): original notes, diagrams, timelines and practice for geography, history, political science and economics.
An original companion to Understanding Society: India and Beyond, NCERT Class 9 Social Science (2026–27 edition). Official textbook ↗ ncert.nic.in
Start: Chapter 1 Understanding Social Science0 of 9 chapters done
Every chapter is ready
Every chapter is ready
Chapters
- ENHinglish
Chapter 1: Understanding Social Science
An introduction to social science as the evidence-based study of how people live together. - ENHinglish
Chapter 2: Shaping of the Earth's Surface (Shaping the Earth's Surface)
Class 9 social science (Understanding Society: India and Beyond, ch. - ENHinglish
Chapter 3: Atmosphere and Climate
The atmosphere is a layer of gases held around the Earth by gravity: about 78 % nitrogen, 21 % oxygen and 1 % other gases, plus a variable a - ENHinglish
Chapter 4: Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation (Early Humans, Civilisation)
The chapter follows the human story from the first stone tools (c. - ENHinglish
Chapter 5: State and Society up to 1000 CE (State and Society to 1000 CE)
The chapter surveys state and society in the Indian subcontinent from the Vedic age to about 1000 CE. - ENHinglish
Chapter 6: Democracy
The chapter explains democracy as government in which final power rests with the people. - ENHinglish
Chapter 7: Elections
Chapter 7 of Understanding Society (Class 9) explains why regular, free and fair elections are central to democracy and how India runs them: - ENHinglish
Chapter 8: Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of Choice
Class 9 social science (economics) chapter on the problem of choice. - ENHinglish
Chapter 9: The Price Puzzle: What Drives the Market (Demand, Supply and Price)
Chapter 9 (economics) explains how prices are set.
Also in Hinglish
- Chapter 1: Social Science ko Samajhna (Hinglish)
- Chapter 2: Earth ki Surface ka Banna aur Badalna (Hinglish)
- Chapter 3: Atmosphere aur Climate (Hinglish)
- Chapter 4: Early Humans aur Civilisation ki Shuruaat (Hinglish)
- Chapter 5: 1000 CE tak State aur Society (Hinglish)
- Chapter 6: Democracy (Hinglish)
- Chapter 7: Elections (Hinglish)
- Chapter 8: Economics ke Building Blocks: Choice ki Problem (Hinglish)
- Chapter 9: The Price Puzzle: Market ko kya chalata hai (Hinglish)
A
accountabilityजवाबदेहीThe duty of those in power to explain their decisions to the people and face the consequences.Ch 6 · Democracyagents of gradationतल संतुलन के कारकNatural forces (running water, glaciers, wind, waves, underground water) that wear down high land and fill up low land.Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's Surfaceair pressureवायुदाबThe push of the weight of the air on a surface; highest at sea level and lower at greater heights.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and ClimatealtitudeऊँचाईHeight above mean sea level, which is counted as zero; usually given in metres.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and Climatearchaeological sourceपुरातात्विक स्रोतMaterial remains of the past, such as buildings, sites, tools, pottery and sculpture.Ch 1 · Understanding Social Sciencearchaeologyपुरातत्वThe study of the human past through material remains such as tools, pots, bones and buildings, usually found by excavation.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisationartefactपुरावस्तुAny object made or shaped by people, such as a stone tool, a pot or a bead.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of CivilisationĀ
āśhramaआश्रमOne of the four ideal stages of life: student, householder, forest-dweller and renouncer.Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CEA
asthenosphereदुर्बलतामंडलThe hot, soft, partly molten layer of the upper mantle just below the lithosphere, on which the plates move.Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's SurfaceatmosphereवायुमंडलThe layer of mixed gases that surrounds the Earth and is held in place by gravity.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and ClimateC
capital-intensiveपूँजी-प्रधानA way of producing that uses many machines and relatively few workers.Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of Choicecarbon footprintकार्बन पदचिह्नAll the greenhouse gases that a person's, family's or organisation's way of living adds to the air.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and ClimateChalcolithicताम्रपाषाण कालThe Copper–Stone Age, when people used copper tools alongside stone ones.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisationcity-stateनगर-राज्यA city that governs itself as an independent state, together with the farmland and villages around it.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisationcivil societyनागरिक समाजVoluntary groups, NGOs and community associations through which citizens act together outside the government.Ch 6 · Democracycivilisationसभ्यताA large, complex society with cities, specialised workers, government and usually writing.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of CivilisationclimateजलवायुThe average weather of a place or region, and its usual variations, over a long period, usually 30 years or more.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and Climatecomplementary goodsपूरक वस्तुएँGoods that are used together, such as scooters and helmets.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the Marketconstituencyनिर्वाचन क्षेत्रAn area whose voters elect a representative to a legislature.Ch 7 · Electionscontinuity and changeनिरंतरता और परिवर्तनThe study of what stays the same in a society over time and what becomes different.Ch 1 · Understanding Social Scienceconvection currentसंवहन धाराA slow loop of movement in the mantle: hot rock rises, spreads, cools and sinks again.Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's Surfacecuneiformकीलाक्षरThe wedge-shaped script of Mesopotamia, made by pressing a cut reed into soft clay.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of CivilisationD
defectionदल-बदलAn elected member leaving the party on whose ticket they won, or going against its instructions in the legislature.Ch 7 · ElectionsdelimitationपरिसीमनFixing the number of seats for each State and redrawing constituency boundaries so that constituencies have roughly equal populations.Ch 7 · Electionsdeltaडेल्टाA fan-shaped or triangular plain of silt built where a river meets a sea or lake.Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's SurfacedemandमाँगHow much of a good buyers are ready and able to purchase at a given price in a given period.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the Marketdemocracyलोकतंत्रA form of government in which the people hold final power and rule through representatives they elect in free and fair elections, or sometimes directly.Ch 6 · Democracydharmaधर्मDuty, right conduct and moral order: that which upholds people and the world. It does not simply mean religion.Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CEdiminishing marginal utilityह्रासमान सीमांत उपयोगिताEach extra unit of a good adds less satisfaction than the one before.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the Marketdirect democracyप्रत्यक्ष लोकतंत्रA form of democracy in which citizens themselves vote on laws and decisions.Ch 6 · Democracydirect electionप्रत्यक्ष चुनावAn election in which citizens vote for the office-holder themselves, as for Lok Sabha members.Ch 7 · ElectionsdisciplineअनुशासनA branch of knowledge with its own questions, methods and tools, such as history or economics.Ch 1 · Understanding Social Sciencedomesticationपालतू बनानाBringing plants and animals under human control and breeding them, over generations, into useful new varieties.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of CivilisationE
economyअर्थव्यवस्थाThe system of producing, distributing, trading and using goods and services in a country or region, including the flow of money.Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of ChoiceelectionचुनावThe process by which citizens choose their representatives by voting.Ch 7 · ElectionsElection Commission of India (ECI)भारत निर्वाचन आयोगThe constitutional body that conducts elections to Parliament, the State legislatures, and the offices of President and Vice President.Ch 7 · Electionselectoral rollमतदाता सूचीThe official list of people entitled to vote in a constituency, arranged by polling station.Ch 7 · Electionselectoral systemनिर्वाचन प्रणालीThe set of rules that turns the votes cast into seats in a legislature.Ch 7 · Electionsempirical evidenceअनुभवजन्य साक्ष्यInformation gathered by direct observation, measurement or experiment.Ch 1 · Understanding Social Scienceendogamyअंतर्विवाहThe custom of choosing a marriage partner from within one's own group or community.Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CEepigraphic sourceअभिलेखीय स्रोतWriting carved or engraved on a hard surface such as rock, a pillar or a metal plate.Ch 1 · Understanding Social ScienceerosionअपरदनThe wearing away of rock and soil and its removal by running water, wind, ice or waves.Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's Surfaceexcess demandअधिमाँगA shortage: quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied at the current price.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the Marketexcess supplyअधिपूर्तिA surplus: quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded at the current price.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the MarketF
factors of productionउत्पादन के कारकThe inputs every producer combines: land, labour, capital and technology.Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of Choicefirst-past-the-post (FPTP)सर्वाधिक वोट से जीत की प्रणालीA system in which each constituency elects one member, and whoever polls the most votes wins, even without a majority.Ch 7 · Electionsfossilजीवाश्मBones, shells, imprints or footprints of a living thing from the distant past, preserved in rock.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of CivilisationFundamental Rightsमौलिक अधिकारThe six groups of basic rights in Part III of the Constitution, which the courts enforce.Ch 6 · DemocracyG
gaṇa (saṁgha)गणA republic-like state ruled by a group of leading families who met and decided together, not by a single king.Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CEgenealogical recordवंशावली अभिलेखA record of a family line across generations, noting births, marriages and deaths.Ch 1 · Understanding Social ScienceGISभौगोलिक सूचना प्रणालीGeographical Information System: computer software that stacks layers of data about the same area so they can be compared.Ch 1 · Understanding Social Scienceglacial lake outburst flood (GLOF)हिमनद झील विस्फोट बाढ़A sudden flood when the natural dam of ice or moraine holding a glacial lake gives way.Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's SurfacegovernanceशासनThe way power is used to make and carry out decisions for a group, from a village to a country.Ch 1 · Understanding Social ScienceGram Sabhaग्राम सभाThe assembly of all adult voters of a village panchayat's area, which approves the panchayat's plans and spending.Ch 6 · Democracygreenhouse gasग्रीनहाउस गैसA gas, such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide or water vapour, that absorbs heat given off by the Earth and sends some of it back down.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and ClimateH
historiographyइतिहास-लेखनThe way history is researched and written, including the methods historians use to test their sources.Ch 1 · Understanding Social SciencehomininA member of the group that includes modern humans and all our extinct two-legged ancestors and close relatives.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisationhumidityआर्द्रताThe amount of water vapour in the air.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and ClimateI
indirect electionअप्रत्यक्ष चुनावAn election in which citizens elect representatives, who in turn elect the office-holder, as for the President.Ch 7 · Electionsinsolationसूर्यातपIncoming solar radiation: the energy from the Sun that reaches the Earth.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and ClimateJ
janaजनA people or clan of the Vedic period, held together by kinship and led by a rājā.Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CEjanapadaजनपदLiterally the place where a jana set its foot: a territory with settled villages that a people claimed as its own.Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CEjātiजातिA social group, often linked to an occupation and a region, whose members usually married within it; their number kept growing.Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CEK
karst topographyकार्स्ट स्थलाकृतिLandforms made where underground water dissolves limestone: caves, sinkholes, stalactites and stalagmites.Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's SurfaceL
labour-intensiveश्रम-प्रधानA way of producing that uses many workers and relatively few machines.Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of Choicelandformस्थलरूपA natural shape of the land surface, such as a mountain, valley, plateau, plain, dune or beach.Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's Surfacelaw of demandमाँग का नियमOther things staying the same, quantity demanded falls when price rises and rises when price falls.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the Marketlaw of supplyपूर्ति का नियमOther things staying the same, quantity supplied rises when price rises and falls when price falls.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the Marketlithosphereस्थलमंडलThe rigid outer shell of the Earth made of the crust and the top part of the mantle, about 100 km thick.Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's SurfaceM
mahājanapadaमहाजनपदA large territorial state of about 600 BCE onwards; Buddhist and Jaina texts list sixteen of them.Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CEmarketबाज़ारAny arrangement where buyers and sellers meet to trade goods and services, in a physical place or online.Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of Choicemarket economyबाज़ार अर्थव्यवस्थाAn economic system in which demand and supply mainly decide production and prices, and most resources are privately owned.Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of Choicemarket equilibriumबाज़ार संतुलनThe price and quantity at which quantity demanded equals quantity supplied, with no shortage or surplus.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the Marketmeanderविसर्पA loop-like bend of a river, made by erosion on the outer bank and deposition on the inner bank.Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's SurfacemicrolithA tiny stone blade or point, often set in rows in a handle of wood or bone; typical of the Mesolithic.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisationmixed economyमिश्रित अर्थव्यवस्थाAn economic system in which private firms and the government both own enterprises and make economic decisions, under government rules.Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of ChoiceModel Code of Conduct (MCC)आदर्श आचार संहिताGuidelines on how parties, candidates and governments must behave from the announcement of an election until the results.Ch 7 · ElectionsmonopolyएकाधिकारA market with a single seller of a good that has no close substitutes.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the MarketmonsoonमानसूनA wind system that reverses direction with the seasons, giving a wet season and a dry season.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and Climatemoraineहिमोढ़A ridge or heap of rock, sand and clay (till) dropped by a glacier: lateral, medial or terminal.Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's Surfacemulti-party systemबहुदलीय व्यवस्थाA system in which several political parties compete for power, so voters have real choices.Ch 6 · DemocracymummificationममीकरणThe Egyptian method of drying and wrapping a dead body so that it would not decay.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of CivilisationN
needआवश्यकताSomething essential for survival and safety, such as food, water, clothing and shelter.Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of Choicenumismatic sourceमुद्राशास्त्रीय स्रोतCoins, currency and medals used as evidence about the past; their study is numismatics.Ch 1 · Understanding Social ScienceO
opportunity costअवसर लागतThe value of the best alternative given up when a choice is made.Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of Choiceozone layerओज़ोन परतA region of the stratosphere, mostly about 15–35 km up, rich in ozone gas that absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and ClimateP
Palaeolithicपुरापाषाण कालThe Old Stone Age, the longest period of the human past, when people hunted and gathered with chipped stone tools.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of CivilisationPañchamahābhūtasपंचमहाभूतThe five great elements of Indian philosophy (earth, water, fire, air and space), which picture nature as one connected system.Ch 1 · Understanding Social SciencePanchayati Rajपंचायती राजIndia's system of elected rural local government, with the Gram Sabha of all village voters at its base.Ch 1 · Understanding Social SciencepapyrusAn Egyptian writing material made from thin strips of the stem of a Nile reed, pressed into sheets.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisationparliamentary democracyसंसदीय लोकतंत्रA representative democracy in which the executive comes from the legislature and stays in office only while it keeps the legislature's support.Ch 6 · Democracyplanned economyनियोजित अर्थव्यवस्थाAn economic system in which a central government authority decides what, how and for whom to produce, and sets prices.Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of Choiceplate boundaryप्लेट सीमाThe edge where two plates meet: convergent (moving together), divergent (moving apart) or transform (sliding past).Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's Surfacepolitical partyराजनीतिक दलAn organised group of people with shared ideas about government who contest elections to gain power and put those ideas into practice.Ch 7 · Electionspopular sovereigntyलोकप्रिय संप्रभुताThe principle that the final authority of the State comes from its people, who grant it through their votes.Ch 6 · Democracyprecipitationवर्षणWater that falls from clouds to the ground as rain, drizzle, snow, sleet or hail.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and Climatepresidential democracyअध्यक्षात्मक लोकतंत्रA representative democracy in which voters elect the President, the head of government, separately from the legislature and for a fixed term.Ch 6 · Democracyprice ceilingउच्चतम निर्धारित कीमतA maximum price fixed by the government.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the Marketprice floorनिम्नतम निर्धारित कीमतA minimum price fixed by the government, such as a minimum wage.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the Marketproduction possibility curveउत्पादन संभावना वक्रA graph of the largest combinations of two goods that can be made when all resources are used fully and efficiently.Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of Choiceproportional representation (PR)आनुपातिक प्रतिनिधित्वA system in which parties or groups win seats in proportion to their share of the votes.Ch 7 · Electionspublic goodsसार्वजनिक वस्तुएँGoods and services that everyone can use, where no one can easily be kept out, such as street lights and public parks.Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of Choicepublic goodsसार्वजनिक वस्तुएँGoods that serve everyone together and are hard to charge for, such as streetlights; usually provided by the government.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the MarketPublic Interest Litigationजनहित याचिकाA case filed in court to protect the public interest, often for people who cannot approach the court themselves.Ch 6 · Democracypurchasing powerक्रय शक्तिHow much a given sum of money will fetch at a given moment.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the Marketpuruṣhārthaपुरुषार्थOne of the four aims of life: dharma (right conduct), artha (wealth), kāma (desire) and mokṣha (liberation).Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CER
representative democracyप्रतिनिधि लोकतंत्रA form of democracy in which citizens elect representatives who decide on their behalf.Ch 6 · DemocracyresourcesसंसाधनAnything used to produce goods and services, either natural (water, soil, coal) or made by people (machines, buildings, technology).Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of ChoiceRing of Fireअग्नि वलयThe horseshoe-shaped belt of plate boundaries around the Pacific Ocean, where most earthquakes and many volcanoes occur.Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's Surfacerule of lawविधि का शासनThe principle that everyone, including those in power, is equally subject to the law, and that disputes are settled by legal procedure.Ch 6 · DemocracyS
saptāṅgaसप्तांगThe seven limbs of the State in the Arthaśhāstra: king, ministers, territory with people, forts, treasury, force and allies.Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CEscarcityदुर्लभताThe problem that resources are limited while wants are unlimited, so not every want can be met.Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of Choiceseparation of powersशक्तियों का पृथक्करणDividing government work among the legislature, the executive and the judiciary, so that each can check the others.Ch 6 · DemocracyŚ
śhreṇī (guild)श्रेणीAn association of people in the same craft or trade that set standards, settled disputes and even took deposits.Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CES
single transferable vote (STV)एकल संक्रमणीय मतA form of PR in which electors rank candidates; votes above the quota, and votes of eliminated candidates, pass to the next preference.Ch 7 · Electionssocial scienceसामाजिक विज्ञानThe organised, evidence-based study of how people live together: their surroundings, past, power, resources and ideas.Ch 1 · Understanding Social SciencesocietyसमाजA web of relationships among people who share a place, a culture and a sense of belonging, held together mostly by custom.Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CEspatial perspectiveस्थानिक परिप्रेक्ष्यLooking at a place's location and its links with other places to explain what happens there.Ch 1 · Understanding Social ScienceStateराज्यAn organised political system with rulers, laws, officials and ways to enforce order over a territory and its people.Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CEstratosphereसमतापमंडलThe layer above the troposphere, up to about 50 km; calm and nearly cloud-free, it contains the ozone layer.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and Climatesubstitute goodsस्थानापन्न वस्तुएँGoods that can be used in place of each other, such as metro and bus rides.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the Marketsupplyपूर्तिHow much of a good sellers are ready and able to put on sale at a given price in a given period.Ch 9 · The Price Puzzle: What Drives the MarketsurplusअधिशेषMore food or goods than the producers need for themselves, which can feed or pay other people.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisationsustainable developmentसतत विकासDevelopment that meets people's needs today while leaving future generations enough resources for their own needs.Ch 1 · Understanding Social ScienceT
tectonic plateविवर्तनिक प्लेटA huge, rigid slab of the lithosphere that moves slowly, a few centimetres a year.Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's Surfacetroposphereक्षोभमंडलThe lowest layer of the atmosphere, where we live and where nearly all weather happens; it gets colder with height.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and ClimateU
universal adult franchiseसार्वभौमिक वयस्क मताधिकारThe right of every adult citizen (in India, aged 18 or more) to vote, with no conditions of wealth, education, caste, religion or sex.Ch 6 · DemocracyV
varṇaवर्णOne of four broad social categories named in the Vedic texts: brāhmaṇa, kṣhatriya, vaiśhya and śhūdra.Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CEVoter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT)A printer attached to an EVM that shows the voter a paper slip of the vote cast and keeps it in a sealed box for checking.Ch 7 · Electionsvotive inscriptionदान-अभिलेखWords carved on stone or metal to record a gift, such as a pillar or a carving, made to a deity or a sacred place.Ch 5 · State and Society up to 1000 CEW
wantइच्छाSomething that adds comfort or pleasure but is not essential. Wants never run out and change over time.Ch 8 · Building Blocks in Economics: The Problem of ChoiceweatherमौसमThe state of the atmosphere at a place over a short time, such as hours or days.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and Climateweatheringअपक्षयThe breaking down of rocks where they lie, by physical, chemical or biological processes, without moving them.Ch 2 · Shaping of the Earth's SurfacewindपवनAir moving from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure.Ch 3 · Atmosphere and ClimateZ
zigguratज़िगुरातA huge stepped temple tower of Mesopotamia, built of mud brick, with a shrine to the city's god on top.Ch 4 · Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisationncert.ai is an independent learning companion aligned to the NCERT curriculum. It is not affiliated with or endorsed by NCERT.