The Living World: Class 11 Biology Chapter 1 Hinglish mein

Biology living things aur unhe zinda rakhne wale processes ko study karti hai. Yeh chapter Unit 1, Diversity in the Living World, ki shuruaat karta hai, jiske chaar chapters ek hi problem ko suljhaate hain: lakhon alag-alag kinds ke organisms ko koi samjhe to kaise? Yahan tum ek toolkit banaoge (organisms ko identify karna, naam dena aur rank karna), jise Chapters 2 se 4 microbes, plants aur animals ko survey karne mein use karte hain.

Biology ki sabse badi discoveries mein se ek ek bilkul boring kaam se nikli: records rakhna. Jaise-jaise naturalists zyada se zyada organisms ko describe karte gaye, un descriptions ko organise karna pada, aur living things ko identify karne, naam dene aur group karne ke systems bane. In systems ne do directions mein milti-julti cheezein dikhayi: aaj ki living world mein ek doosre ke beech, aur time mein peeche jaakar living aur extinct forms ke beech. Iska sabse achha explanation yeh hai ki har zinda organism har doosre organism se related hai, aur un sab se bhi jo kabhi zinda the. Yeh sochkar gambhir ho jaate hain ki tumhare aur ek tiger aur ek neem tree ke ancestors common hain, aur isi se aaj biodiversity ko bachane ki koshishon ka wazan samajh aata hai.

History ke zyada hisse mein log nature se alag tarah se jude the. Hawa, aag aur nadiyon ki pooja hoti thi, peepal ka ped aur gaay aaj bhi kai Indian gharon mein pavitra maane jaate hain, aur in sab ke peeche ki bhavna thi shraddha, kabhi-kabhi darr. Jab tak living things ko mainly is baat se aanka jaata raha ki insaanon ke liye unka kya matlab hai, yaani ek anthropocentric (human-centred) soch, tab tak biological knowledge dheere-dheere hi aage badha.

Life planet ke lagbhag har kone mein bas chuki hai, Himalaya ki pathreeli dhalaanon par snow leopards se lekar Sundarbans ke keechad mein crabs aur Manikaran ke garam paani ke jharnon mein garmi pasand karne wale microbes tak. Yeh har size mein milti hai, bacteria se lekar aise banyan trees tak jo ek hectare mein phail jaate hain. Itni variety dekhkar tum pooch sakte ho ki in sab mein common kya hai: life aakhir hai kya?

Is sawaal mein do aur sawaal chhupe hain. Ek scientific hai: living thing ko non-living se kya alag karta hai? Iska faisla evidence se ho sakta hai. Doosra philosophical hai: life kis liye hai? Iske kisi bhi jawaab ko koi experiment test nahi kar sakta, isliye biology pehle sawaal par kaam karti hai aur doosra philosophers par chhod deti hai.

1.1 Diversity in the Living World

Tumhare mohalle mein kitne kinds ke organisms rehte hain? Biologists kinds ginte hain, individuals nahi: sau house crows ek hi kind hain, jabki ek house crow aur ek myna do kinds hain. Har kind ek species hai. Ginti apni khidki se shuru karo, to shayad teen par ruk jao (ek money plant, ek gecko, ek house crow). Poore campus ka survey karo to ginti badh jaati hai; Western Ghats ke kisi forest ka survey karo to aur bhi zyada badh jaati hai (Fig. 1.1). Tab bhi list adhoori rehti hai, kyunki bacteria, yeasts aur zyadatar algae microscope ke bina dikhte hi nahi.

Is ginti ko poore planet tak le jao, to tum biodiversity naap rahe ho, yaani Earth par organisms ke kinds ki sankhya aur variety. Ab tak lagbhag 1.7–1.8 million species describe karke naam di ja chuki hain.22Catalogue of Life jaise global databases ab do million se thoda zyada accepted species list karte hain, living aur extinct dono, isliye tumhe kahin aur bade figures bhi mil sakte hain. Koi nahi maanta ki list poori ho gayi hai: har saal Western Ghats se naye frogs, aam garden soil se naye microbes, aur un regions se bhi nayi species milti hain jinhe naturalists sadiyon se chhaan rahe hain.

Organisms ko naam dena: identification aur nomenclature

Chhe Indian states ke logon se poocho ki woh kadwi pattiyon wale us ped ko kya kehte hain jiski tehni toothbrush ki tarah chabayi jaati hai, to tumhe neem, vembu, vepa, bevu, kadunimb aur nim sunne ko mil sakta hai (Fig. 1.2). Har naam apne ghar par bilkul theek kaam karta hai. Lekin poore desh mein, duniya ki to baat hi chhodo, local names confusion paida karte hain: ek naam do plants ke liye ho sakta hai, aur ek plant ke darjan bhar naam ho sakte hain. Jaise Hindi mein meetha neem ka matlab curry leaf hai, jo bilkul alag plant hai.

Ise suljhaane mein do steps lagte hain. Pehle aata hai identification: organism ko itni sahi tarah describe karna ki tay ho sake ki woh kaun sa known kind hai, ya dikhaya ja sake ki woh naya hai. Tabhi nomenclature apna kaam kar sakta hai, yaani ek standard naam lagana jo har koi, har jagah, us kind ke liye use kare. Galat organism par chipka naam, koi naam na hone se bhi bura hai.

Yeh kaam do rulebooks se chalta hai. Plant names International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) ko follow karte hain, aur animal names International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) ko.332011 mein botanical code ka naam badalkar International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) kar diya gaya. Exam questions mein aam taur par abhi bhi ICBN hi likha hota hai. Dono milkar teen vaade pakke karte hain. Ek baar use hua naam kabhi kisi doosre organism ko nahi diya jaata. Ek organism ka sirf ek valid scientific name hota hai, chahe uske kitne bhi local names hon. Aur uski published description itni detailed hoti hai ki Chennai ya Chile ka koi biologist, usi organism ko examine karke, wahi naam tak pahunche.

Binomial nomenclature

Neem ka scientific name dekho, Azadirachta indica. Pehla word, Azadirachta, generic name hai: yeh genus ka naam batata hai. Doosra word, indica, specific epithet hai, jo us genus ke andar ek species ko alag pehchaanta hai. Aisa do-word naam binomial kehlata hai, aur yeh system binomial nomenclature hai. Eighteenth century ke Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus ne apni describe ki hui species ke liye lagataar do-word names use kiye, aur yeh names chal pade kyunki yeh chhote hain aur inhe sort karna aasaan hai. Tiger Panthera tigris hai; tum Homo sapiens ho.

Do-word format ke saath chaar conventions chalte hain.

1. Order: generic name hamesha pehle aata hai aur specific epithet baad mein.
2. Capitals: generic name capital letter se shuru hota hai, specific epithet small letter se, tab bhi jab epithet kisi jagah ke naam se bana ho: Ficus benghalensis, kabhi bhi Ficus Benghalensis nahi.
3. Language: words Latin ya Latinised hote hain, chahe woh kisi bhi language se shuru hue hon. Jaise Azadirachta is ped ke ek Persian naam ka Latinised form hai.
4. Style: print mein dono words italics mein hote hain; handwriting mein, jahan italics likhna mushkil hai, har word ke neeche alag underline hota hai. Dono style ek nazar mein bata dete hain ki naam Latin hai.

Poori citation ke aakhir mein us scientist ka naam aa sakta hai jisne species ko sabse pehle describe kiya, chhota karke aur bina italics ke. Azadirachta indica A.Juss. record karta hai ki French botanist Adrien-Henri de Jussieu ne neem ko describe kiya (1830 mein), aur Oryza sativa L. mein ‘L.’ (Linn. bhi likha jaata hai) rice ka naam rakhne ka credit Linnaeus ko deta hai. Ek baar genus poora likh diya jaaye, to aage use uske initial tak chhota kiya ja sakta hai, jaise P. tigris.

Classification aur taxa

Kisi dost se ‘birds’ kaho to uske mann mein feathers, beak aur wings aate hain; ‘grasses’ kaho to koi mango tree nahi sochta. Ek group name apne saath features ka poora bundle le aata hai. Yahi classification ki taakat hai: cheezon ko aise characters ke basis par convenient groups mein baantna jo koi bhi dekh sake. 1.7 million described species ke saath, biology iske bina chal hi nahi sakti, kyunki koi bhi har species ko ek-ek karke study nahi kar sakta.

Biologists aise groups ko taxa kehte hain (singular taxon), aur taxon kisi bhi size ka ho sakta hai. Ek ke andar ek rakhe boxes ko imagine karo (Fig. 1.4): saare plants wale box mein flowering plants ka chhota box hai, jismein grasses hain, jismein rice hai. Har box ek taxon hai. Isliye taxa kai levels par hote hain, aur koi bhi organism ek saath unmein se kai ka member hota hai.

Taxonomy aur systematics

Is saari sorting ke peeche ki science taxonomy hai, jo organisms ko unki characteristics ke hisaab se taxa mein arrange karti hai. Bahari roop sirf ek clue hai. Aaj ke taxonomists internal anatomy, cells ki structure, organism ka egg ya seed se develop hone ka tareeka, aur habitat aur behaviour jaisi ecological information ko bhi compare karte hain.

Chaar jude hue processes taxonomy ka base banate hain, aur tum inhe ek aise frog ke liye follow kar sakte ho jiska abhi tak kisi ne naam nahi rakha (Fig. 1.5). Characterisation uske features record karta hai. Identification unhe known species ke features se compare karta hai. Classification use ek genus, ek family aur upar ke ranks mein rakhta hai. Nomenclature naya saabit hone par use ek valid scientific name deta hai.

Sabse purane classifications practical the. Kisi plant ke baare mein kisaan ka pehla sawaal yeh hota tha ki kya woh family ka pet bharega, cattle ka, ya chulhe ki aag ka, isliye shuruaati groupings use ke hisaab se bani: grain crops, fodder, timber trees, healing herbs, draught animals. Aisi groupings kaam ki hain, lekin yeh is baare mein bahut kam batati hain ki organisms kaise bane hain ya aapas mein kaise related hain (neeche wala comparison).

Systematics sorting se ek kadam aage jaata hai: yeh poochta hai ki organisms ek doosre se kaise related hain, aur aaj iska matlab hai unke evolutionary relationships. Yeh naam Latin systema se aaya hai, yaani ek orderly arrangement, aur Linnaeus ne ise nature ke apne catalogue ke title, Systema Naturae, mein use kiya. Yeh field relationships se shuru hua aur baad mein phailkar identification, nomenclature aur classification ko bhi shaamil karne laga.

1.2 Taxonomic Categories

Kisi organism ko classify karna poora postal address likhne jaisa hai: country, state, district, town, street, house. Har line search ko chhota karti hai, aur har line ek fixed level par hoti hai. Taxonomy mein address ki lines ranks hain, jinhe taxonomic categories bhi kehte hain, aur unki poori kramwaar seedhi taxonomic hierarchy hai. Har category classification ki ek unit hai, aur roz ki bolchaal mein ise seedha taxon kaha jaata hai.44Theek-theek kahein to category rank hai (jaise genus) aur taxon us rank par rakha gaya ek asli group hai (jaise Panthera). NCERT aur zyadatar exam questions dono ke liye ‘taxon’ use karte hain.

Ranks manmaane boxes nahi hain. Feathers har bird mein hote hain aur kisi doosre living animal mein nahi, aur har bird ki chonch bina daanton ki hoti hai. Features ka aisa set jo saare members mein ho aur kisi bahari mein nahi, ek asli, natural group ko mark karta hai, isliye birds ko apni rank milti hai: class Aves. Is tarah bane taxonomic groups asli biological units hain, sirf aise organisms ka collection nahi jo upar se ek jaise dikhte hain.

Har organism ke liye, chahe plant ho ya animal, wahi saat ranks use hote hain. Upar se yeh hain kingdom, phylum (plants mein division), class, order, family, genus aur species, aur species hamesha sabse neeche ki seedhi hai (Fig. 1.6). Koi organism kahan aata hai, yeh tay karne ke liye sabse zyada ek cheez chahiye: uske characters ki detailed knowledge. Tabhi tum faisla kar sakte ho ki woh kin organisms se sabse zyada milta hai, apne kind ke andar bhi aur uske bahar bhi.

1.2.1 Species

Species taxonomy ki working unit hai. Iske members ki basic banawat same hoti hai, aur ek species ko apne sabse kareebi rishtedaaron se form ke saaf differences ke basis par alag kiya ja sakna chahiye. Grey wolf aur golden jackal mote taur par ek jaise dikhte hain, phir bhi size, coat aur skull unhe do species, Canis lupus aur Canis aureus, ke roop mein alag karte hain.

Dhyaan do ki unke names kaise bane hain. Common pehla word, Canis, genus ka naam hai, jo species se ek rank upar hai; doosre words, lupus aur aureus, specific epithets hain jo har species ko alag pehchaante hain. Genera ka size alag-alag hota hai. Ficus mein sainkdon species hain, jinmein banyan (F. benghalensis), peepal (F. religiosa) aur fig (F. carica) shaamil hain. Sloth bear Melursus ka akela member hai, aur humans Homo ke akele living members hain, isliye humara naam Homo sapiens hai.

1.2.2 Genus

Ek genus ko jo cheez jode rakhti hai woh yeh hai ki uski species aapas mein kisi bhi doosre genus ki species se zyada characters share karti hain. Figs ise achhe se dikhate hain: har Ficus apne chhote-chhote flowers ko ek khokhle, gudedaar receptacle ke andar chhupata hai jo pakkar ‘fig’ banta hai, aur aisi structure kisi doosre genus mein nahi hoti. Dog family mein yahi logic Canis (wolves aur jackals) ko Vulpes, yaani foxes, se alag karta hai, jaise patli, ghani poonch wali Bengal fox, Vulpes bengalensis (Fig. 1.7). Short mein, genus closely related species ka ek cluster hai.

1.2.3 Family

Lemon, orange aur bael fruit ek doosre se kaafi alag dikhte hain, phir bhi inmein se kisi ki bhi patti masal kar dekho to aromatic oils ki khushboo aati hai, jo patti par bikhri chhoti-chhoti glands mein bhare hote hain; inke flowers ka basic plan bhi ek jaisa hota hai. Aise evidence ke basis par genera Citrus aur Aegle ek family, Rutaceae, mein rakhe jaate hain. Family related genera ka group hai jiske members mein, ek genus ki species ke muqable, kam features common hote hain. Plants ke liye botanists family ki boundaries tay karte waqt vegetative characters (root, stem, leaf) aur reproductive characters (flower, fruit, seed) dono ko tolte hain. Animals mein, Canis aur Vulpes milkar dog family, Canidae, banate hain, jabki sloth bear ka Melursus alag bear family, Ursidae, mein aata hai.

1.2.4 Order

Ek order related families ko ikattha karta hai. Har kadam upar bandhan dheela hota jaata hai, isliye ek order ki families sirf kuch hi characters mein milti hain, jo ek family ke andar ke genera ke shared characters se bhi kam hain. Is rank se upar taxonomists single features par kam aur characters ke aggregates par zyada dhyaan dete hain, yaani aise overall combinations jo poore group mein baar-baar dikhte hain. Floral evidence, jaise flower ke andar ek ring jaisi nectar disc, citrus, neem aur mango families (Rutaceae, Meliaceae aur Anacardiaceae) ko order Sapindales mein ek saath laane mein madad karta hai (Fig. 1.8). Mammals mein, dog, bear aur cat families sab order Carnivora mein aati hain.

1.2.5 Class

Bats, elephants, monkeys aur tigers bahut alag dikhte hain, lekin sab ke hair hote hain aur sab apne bachchon ko mammary glands ke doodh se paalte hain. Isliye unke orders (Chiroptera, Proboscidea, Primata aur Carnivora) ek class, Mammalia, mein group kiye jaate hain: class related orders ka group hai.55NCERT primate order ko Primata likhti hai; zyadatar modern books ise Primates kehti hain. Is book mein use hue plant system mein flowering plants do classes mein aate hain: Dicotyledonae, jinke seeds mein do seed leaves hoti hain, aur Monocotyledonae, jinmein ek.

1.2.6 Phylum

Fish, frog, lizard, chick ya human ke embryo ke andar dekho to tumhe peeth ke saath-saath chalti wahi do structures milengi: ek notochord, yaani ek lachila supporting rod, aur uske upar ek dorsal hollow nerve cord. Yeh shared features paanch classes (fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds aur mammals) ko ek phylum, Chordata, mein jodte hain (Fig. 1.9). Plants is rank ke liye alag naam use karte hain, division: kuch characters share karne wali plant classes milkar ek division banati hain, jaise Angiospermae, yaani flowering plants.

1.2.7 Kingdom

Sabse upar ki seedhi kingdom hai. Har animal phylum, Chordata aur Arthropoda samet, kingdom Animalia mein aata hai, aur har plant division kingdom Plantae mein. Is unit mein hum inhe seedha animal kingdom aur plant kingdom kehte hain; Chapter 2 samjhata hai ki modern biologists living things ko do se zyada kingdoms mein kyun baantte hain.

Saat ranks mote hain. Aur baareek placement ke liye taxonomists subphylum, superorder aur subfamily jaise beech ke ranks bhi use karte hain; jaise big cats ko aksar Felidae ki subfamily Pantherinae mein rakha jaata hai.

Seedhi ke dono siron ko compare karo. Saare tigers lagbhag har feature share karte hain, jabki Animalia ke saare members sirf gine-chune features share karte hain, jaise many-celled hona aur cell walls na hona. Aam taur par, hierarchy mein neeche wale taxon mein kam members hote hain jinmein bahut kuch common hota hai, aur upar wale mein bahut members hote hain jinmein thoda hi common hota hai. Isi wajah se seedhi ka upari hissa sahi baithana sabse mushkil hai: itne kam shared characters ke saath yeh judge karna mushkil hai ki ek class ya phylum usi level ke doosre se kaise related hai, aur sabse zyada yahi placements badle jaate hain.

Table 1.1 paanch jaane-pehchaane organisms ko species se upar har rank par rakhta hai. Genus bas har scientific name ka pehla word hai, isliye uske liye alag column ki zaroorat nahi. Phir neeche diye Rank climber se dekho ki upar jaate hue groups kaise bade hote jaate hain.