Print Culture and the Modern World: Class 10 History Chapter 5 Hinglish mein

Aaj school se pehle tum jitni printed cheezein dekhte ho, unhe gino. Milk packet par chhapi date, tyohaaron se marked calendar, subah ka newspaper, bus pass aur is textbook ka cover. Print itna aam hai ki hum use mushkil se notice karte hain, aur lagbhag kabhi nahi poochhte ki yeh aaya kahan se.

Phir bhi insaani history ke zyaadatar samay mein print tha hi nahi. Books haath se copy ki jaati thi, aur zyaadatar log kahaniyan padhte nahi, sunte the. Hum East Asia se shuru karte hain, jahan printing shuru hui, phir Europe jaate hain, aur India par khatam karte hain. Raaste mein hum ek bada sawaal poochhenge: words copy karne ke ek naye tareeke ne logon ke sochne, prarthana karne, behas karne aur unpar raj chalaye jaane ka tareeka kaise badal diya?

5.1 Pehli Printed Books

Koi purani Chinese book kholo to woh concertina ki tarah khul sakti hai. Yeh shape seedhe uske print hone ke tareeke se aati hai. AD 594 se China mein books carved wooden blocks se haath se print hoti thi, aur yahi tareeka Japan aur Korea mein bhi use hota tha. Printer block par ubhre hue characters par ink lagata, unke upar paper ki sheet rakhta aur uski peeth ko ragadta. Paper khud ek Chinese invention tha, aur yeh paper patla aur absorbent tha: ink aar-paar soak ho jaati, isliye sheet ki sirf ek side par hi print ho sakta tha. Isliye printed sheets ko fold karke ek kinare par sil kar ek 'accordion book' banayi jaati thi (Fig. 5.1).

Skilled carvers kisi master ki calligraphy ko itni sachchai se utaar lete the ki printed page mein bhi sundar handwriting ki khoobsurati bani rehti thi.

China ke printers ko busy kaun rakhta tha? Sadiyon tak iska jawab tha: sarkar. China ke officials kathin likhit exams ke zariye chune jaate the, aur imperial state un textbooks ki bahut badi print runs sponsor karta tha jo candidates ko achhi tarah padhni hoti thi. Sixteenth century se zyaada se zyaada log yeh exams dene lage, aur unke saath printing bhi badhi.

1600s tak print exam hall se bahar nikal chuka tha. China ke tezi se badhte shehron mein merchants trade ki jaankari ikattha karne ke liye printed material par nirbhar the, aur padhna fursat ka shauk ban gaya. Popular titles mein fiction, poetry, life stories, mahaan sahitya ki anthologies aur romantic plays shaamil the. Ameer auratein shauk se padhti thi aur kai ne poems aur plays publish kiye; women authors mein scholar-officials ki patniyon se lekar apni zindagi ke baare mein likhne wali courtesans tak shaamil thi.

Machines bahut baad mein aayi, late nineteenth century mein, Western powers ke trading outposts ke saath. Apne Western-style schools ke saath Shanghai is nayi print culture ka hub ban gaya, aur China dheere-dheere hand printing se mechanical printing ki taraf badha.

5.1.1 Japan mein Print

Printing China se Japan lagbhag AD 768–770 mein pahunchi, Buddhist missionaries ke zariye. Sabse purani printed book jis par date hai, woh Chinese hai: AD 868 ka Buddhist Diamond Sutra. Ismein text ki chhe sheets hain jinke saath woodcut pictures hain. Japanese printers sirf books par nahi ruke; unhone kapde, playing cards aur paper money par bhi pictures print ki. Medieval period tak Japan ke readers apne poets aur prose writers ka kaam aasani se khareed sakte the, kyunki books bahut thi aur sasti thi.

Printed pictures ne shehri zindagi ko bhi shape diya. Late eighteenth century mein Edo (aaj ka Tokyo) ke log paintings ke illustrated albums khareedte the, jo artists, courtesans aur teahouse gatherings ki ek stylish urban duniya ka jashn manate the. Wahan ki libraries aur bookshops hand-printed books se bhari padi thi. Yeh lagbhag har vishay par thi: cookery aur achhe manners, flower arranging aur tea ceremony, arithmetic, musical instruments, ghoomne ki mashhoor jagah aur auraton ke baare mein books.

5.2 Print Europe Pahunchta Hai

Sadiyon tak silk route ke caravans Chinese silk aur masale pashchim ki taraf le jaate rahe. Lagbhag eleventh century mein woh kuch aisa laaye jo books ke liye aur bhi zaroori tha: Chinese paper. Paper ki wajah se Europe ke scribes ke liye haath se likhi books, yaani manuscripts, banana kaafi aasaan ho gaya.

1295 mein Venetian explorer Marco Polo China mein kai saal bitane ke baad Italy laute, aur apne saath woodblock printing ki jaankari laaye. Italians woodblocks se books print karne lage, aur yeh tareeka jaldi hi Europe ke doosre hisson mein fail gaya. In shuruaati printed books ko kaun khareedta tha? Zyaadatar university towns ke merchants aur students, jinhe aise texts chahiye the jo woh afford kar sakein. Nobles aur ameer monasteries mehnge vellum par haath se likhi luxury copies hi mangwate rahe, aur printed books ko sasti aur ghatiya keh kar unka mazaak udaate the.

Demand badhti rahi. Books borders ke paar bechi jaane lagi, aur kai towns mein book fairs regular events ban gaye. Booksellers ne haath se copy karne ka kaam bhi naye dhang se organise kiya: ab scribes sirf ameer ya powerful patrons ke liye nahi, booksellers ke liye bhi kaam karte the, aur ek bookseller 50 se zyaada scribes ko kaam par rakh sakta tha. Phir bhi yeh kaafi nahi tha (comparison dekho).

Europe ko lambe texts copy karne ka kahin zyaada tez aur sasta tareeka chahiye tha. Yeh breakthrough 1430s mein Strasbourg (tab ek German-bhaashi shehar, ab France mein) mein aaya, jahan Johann Gutenberg ne pehla jaana-maana printing press banaya.

5.2.1 Gutenberg aur Printing Press

Gutenberg ka invention un cheezon ka ek smart mix tha jo woh pehle se jaante the. Ek bade agricultural estate par pale ek merchant ke bete, woh wine presses aur olive presses ke beech bade hue the. Jawani mein unhone stone polishing seekhi, master goldsmith bane aur trinkets dhaalne ke liye lead moulds banane mein skill haasil ki. Olive press se printing press ka design sujha; moulds se metal letters dhaalne ka tareeka.

1448 tak unka system kaam karne laga. Unki pehli book Bible thi: lagbhag 180 copies, jinhe poora hone mein teen saal lage. Aaj yeh dheema lagta hai, lekin us zamane ke hisaab se yeh kamaal ki tezi thi.

Asli idea tha movable type. Gutenberg ne Roman alphabet ke har letter ke liye metal ka alag piece dhaala. Ek compositor in pieces ko words aur lines mein lagata tha; printing ke baad unhe alag karke agle page ke liye dobara use kiya ja sakta tha. Iske ulat, woodblock ko har page ke liye haath se naye sire se carve karna padta tha. Press ka handle ghumane se platen paper aur inked type par neeche dabta tha. Press har ghante lagbhag 250 sheets, ek side par, print kar sakta tha (Fig. 5.2). Agle 300 saal tak movable type hi printing ki basic technology bani rahi.

Print ne purani book arts ko turant khatam nahi kiya. Kisi shuruaati printed book ko dhyaan se dekho to woh haath se likhi lagti hai. Metal letters decorative scripts ki nakal karte hain, aur haath se banaye painted borders aur pictures text ko gherte hain. Ameer customers ke liye kaam karne wale printers khaali jagah chhod dete the taaki har owner decoration aur use banane wale painters ka school khud chun sake. Gutenberg ki Bible bhi black mein print hui thi, aur beech mein khaali jagah thi jahan artists ne baad mein pavitra shabdon ko highlight karne ke liye haath se rang bhara. Isliye koi do copies bilkul ek jaisi nahi hain, jo elite ko pasand tha: har owner apni unique book par garv kar sakta tha. Aaj 50 se kam copies bachi hain.

Printing tezi se faili. 1450 ke baad ek century ke andar zyaadatar European countries mein apne presses the, jinmein se kai un German printers ne shuru kiye jo kaam ki talaash mein videsh gaye. Books ka production bahut tezi se badha. Fifteenth century ke doosre half mein lagbhag 20 million printed copies Europe ke markets mein pahunchi; sixteenth century mein yeh sankhya lagbhag 200 million thi, yaani das guna. Hand printing se machine printing ki is badlaav ko historians print revolution kehte hain.

5.3 Print Revolution aur Uska Asar

Historians in badlaavon ko revolution kehte hain kyunki print ne sirf books banana tez nahi kiya. Isne badal diya ki aam log jaankari aur gyaan kaise paate the, woh Church, state aur doosri authorities ko kaise dekhte the, aur woh kya maante the. Seedhi baat, isne logon ko duniya dekhne ke naye tareeke diye. Yeh rahe inmein se kuch badlaav.

5.3.1 Ek Naya Reading Public

Pehla badlaav tha price. Ek baar press chal pade to har extra copy mein bahut kam samay aur mehnat lagti thi, isliye books sasti aur kahin zyaada milne lagi, aur readers ki sankhya badhti gayi.

Socho ek gaon ki chai ki dukaan jahan ek aadmi newspaper zor se padhta hai aur darjan bhar log sunte hain. History ke zyaadatar samay mein zyaadatar log words se aise hi milte the. Padhna mostly elite ke liye tha; baaki sab ek oral culture mein jeete the: sacred texts padhe jaate sunna, ballads gaana, lok kathayein sunna, aur saath baith kar performances dekhna. Gyaan zubaani ek se doosre tak jaata tha, aur log kahani akele chupchaap padhne ke bajaye group mein share karte the. Books itni kam aur mehngi thi ki aur kuch possible hi nahi tha. Print ne is hearing public ko reading public mein badal diya.

Lekin ek problem thi: zyaadatar Europeans padh nahi sakte the, aur zyaadatar countries mein literacy twentieth century tak kam hi rahi. Jo log padh hi nahi sakte, unhe books kaise becho? Printers ne tareeka nikaala. Unhone woh print kiya jo log pehle se sunna pasand karte the, ballads aur lok kathayein, khoob saari pictures ke saath. Yeh booklets gaon ki baithakon aur taverns mein gaayi aur zor se padhi jaati thi; taverns woh inns the jahan shehar ke log khaane-peene aur khabrein baantne milte the. Is tarah oral culture print mein aa gayi, aur printed material zubaani failne laga. Sunne wale aur padhne wale ghul-mil gaye, aur hearing public aur reading public ke beech ki line dhundhli ho gayi (Fig. 5.3).

5.3.2 Religious Debates aur Print ka Darr

Ek printed pamphlet un hazaaron logon tak pahunch sakta tha jo uske author ko kabhi bolte hue nahi sunte. Isse debate ki ek nayi duniya khul gayi. Powerful logon ke critics ab apne arguments publish kar sakte the, unhe door-door tak faila sakte the aur logon ki soch badalne ki koshish kar sakte the, ya unhe kuch karne ke liye uksa bhi sakte the. Yeh zindagi ke kai kshetron mein sach tha.

Ek book se kaun darega? Pata chala ki kaafi powerful log, aur kuch aise bhi jo aam taur par books ka swagat karte the. Monarchs aur church leaders, aur kai writers aur artists bhi, is baat se bechain the ki print tak aasaan pahunch aam logon ke dimaag par kya asar karegi. Unki chetavni thi ki agar printing aur reading par control nahi raha, to irreligious aur rebellious ideas failenge aur 'valuable' literature ki izzat kam ho jaayegi. Nayi printed books par hone wali bahut si aalochana ke peeche yahi chinta thi.

Religion mein print ke dono pehlu sabse saaf dikhte hain. 1517 mein ek German monk aur university teacher, Martin Luther, ne Roman Catholic Church ke kaam karne ke tareeke par ninety-five objections likhe. Inmein se ek tha 'indulgences' (paapon ki maafi) bechna. Yeh Ninety-Five Theses debate ki chunauti ke roop mein Wittenberg ke ek church ke darwaze par printed form mein lagaye gaye. Presses ne Luther ki writings bahut badi sankhya mein copy ki, har jagah readers ne unhe apnaya, aur is jhagde ne Church ko baant diya: yahi Protestant Reformation ki shuruaat thi. Luther ke apne German New Testament ki demand itni zyaada thi ki kuch hi hafton mein 5,000 copies bik gayi, aur teen mahine ke andar doosra edition chhaapna pada.

Kai scholars maante hain ki print ne ek naya intellectual mahaul banaya jismein Reformation ke peeche ke ideas tezi se fail sake (Fig. 5.4).

5.3.3 Print aur Dissent

Popular religious books ne woh kiya jiski Church ko ummeed nahi thi: unhone aam logon ko, kam padhe-likhe logon ko bhi, apne dharm ke baare mein khud sochne ke liye prerit kiya. Menocchio ko lo, Italy ka sixteenth-century ka ek miller. Usne apne ilaake mein milne wali books padhi aur Bible ki apni samajh jod-jod kar banayi. God aur duniya ki rachna ke baare mein uske ideas ne Roman Catholic Church ko bahut naraaz kar diya. Church ne heretical beliefs ko jad se mitane ke liye ek Inquisition banayi thi; Menocchio par isne do baar mukadma chalaya aur aakhir mein use maut ki saza de di gayi.

Menocchio jaise readers se pareshaan hokar Church ne publishers aur booksellers par sakht controls lagaye. 1558 se usne ek Index of Prohibited Books rakha: un titles ki list jinhe padhna Catholics ke liye mana tha.

5.4 Reading Mania

Seventeenth aur eighteenth centuries mein Europe mein literacy badhti rahi. Gaon ke schools ka ismein bada haath tha: alag-alag denominations (ek hi dharm ki shaakhayein) ke churches ne unhe khola, aur kisaan aur kaarigar wahan padhna seekhe. Eighteenth century ke ant tak kuch ilaakon mein 60 se 80 per cent log literate the. Nateeja yeh hua ki books ki bhookh itni tez thi ki log 'reading mania' ki baat karne lage, aur printers use poora karne ke liye apna output badhaate rahe.

In naye readers tak pahunchne ke liye booksellers ne pedlars ko chhoti books bechne ke liye gaon-gaon bheja. Almanacs, ballads aur lok kathaon ke saath woh mainly entertainment ke liye padhne ki cheezein bhi le jaate the (Table 5.1). Books kai sizes mein, kai maqsadon aur ruchiyon ke liye aati thi.

Regular publications bhi aane lage. Early eighteenth century se newspapers aur journals, jinhe milakar periodical press kehte hain, current affairs, wars, trade aur door ki jagahon ki reports ko entertainment ke saath milate the.

Ab readers science aur philosophy ko bhi follow kar sakte the. Printers ne prachin aur medieval scientific works ke collections, maps aur diagrams ke saath, nikaale. Jab Isaac Newton ki discoveries print hui, to woh science mein ruchi rakhne wale readers ke itne bade circle tak pahunchi jitna koi lecture hall kabhi nahi sama sakta tha. Voltaire, Rousseau aur Thomas Paine ki writings badi sankhya mein print aur padhi gayi, aur science, reason aur rational thought mein unka vishwas popular writing mein utar aaya.

5.4.1 'Isliye kaanpo, duniya ke tyrants!'

Aaj hum aksar sunte hain ki education ek desh ko badal sakti hai. Eighteenth century ke kai Europeans books ke baare mein yahi kehte the. Century ke beech tak ek aam vishwas tha ki books progress aur enlightenment laati hain. Woh duniya ko behtar banayengi, samaj ko tyranny aur despotism se azaad karengi, aur aisa samay layengi jab reason aur intellect ka raj hoga.

French novelist Louis-Sébastien Mercier (kuch books mein 'Louise-Sebastien' likha hai) sabse zyaada vishwas rakhne walon mein the. Unki nazar mein printing press progress ki sabse badi taakat thi, aur public opinion despotism ko baha le jaayegi. Unke novels ke heroes reading se badal jaate hain: woh books nigal jaate hain, books ki banayi duniya mein kho jaate hain aur enlightened hokar nikalte hain. Is baat par pakka yakeen rakhte hue ki print despotism ko khatam kar dega, unhone ek mashhoor chetavni di:

5.4.2 Print Culture aur French Revolution

Kya print ne 1789 ki French Revolution karwayi? Kuch historians kaafi had tak haan kehte hain: unke hisaab se print culture ne woh halaat taiyaar kiye jinmein Revolution bhadki. Woh aam taur par teen arguments dete hain (Fig. 5.5).

1. Isne Enlightenment ideas failaye. Voltaire aur Rousseau jaise thinkers ne parampara, andhvishwas aur despotism par sawaal uthaye, aur zor diya ki har cheez ki kasauti reason ho, riwaaz nahi. Unhone Church ke sacred authority ke daave aur raja ki unlimited power ko chunauti di, isliye parampara par tika order kam legitimate lagne laga. Unke bahut saare readers ne duniya ko sawaal karne wali, critical aur rational nazar se dekhna seekha.
2. Isne debate ki culture banayi. Reason ki taakat pehchaanne ke baad readers har value, norm aur institution par charcha karne aur use phir se parakhne lage. Is public baatcheet se social revolution ke naye ideas nikle.
3. Isne monarchy ko mazaak bana diya. 1780s mein writing ki ek baadh ne royal family ka mazaak udaaya aur uski naitikta par sawaal uthaye. Cartoons aur caricatures mein dikhaya gaya ki raja aur nobles mauj kar rahe hain jabki aam log bhaari musibat jhel rahe hain. Yeh literature chhupkar (underground) failta raha aur monarchy ke khilaaf dushmani failata raha.

Historians maante hain ki print ideas ko door tak pahunchane mein madad karta hai, lekin woh ek saavdhaani bhi jodte hain. French readers sirf ek tarah ki reading tak seemit nahi the: Voltaire aur Rousseau ke saath woh monarchy aur Church ka propaganda bhi padhte the. Aur readers jo kuch unke paas pahunchta, use aankh band karke maan bhi nahi lete the. Woh kuch ideas apnaate, kuch thukraate aur cheezon ka apna matlab nikaalte. Isliye print ne logon ki soch ko program nahi kiya; usne bas unke liye alag tarah se sochna possible banaya.

5.5 Nineteenth Century

Nineteenth century mein Europe mein mass literacy ne bahut badi chhalaang lagayi. Naye readers ke teen bade groups saamne aaye: bachche, auratein aur workers.

5.5.1 Bachche, Auratein aur Workers

Bachche. Late nineteenth century mein primary schooling compulsory hone ke baad bachche ek bada reading public ban gaye, aur school textbooks publishing trade ke liye zaroori ho gaye. France mein 1857 mein sirf children's literature ke liye ek press shuru hua; usne nayi kahaniyan aur purani pariyon ki aur lok kathayein bhi chhaapi. Germany mein Jacob aur Wilhelm Grimm ne saalon tak kisaanon se paaramparik kahaniyan ikattha ki. Unke 1812 ke collection mein woh sab hata diya gaya jo bachchon ke liye theek nahi ya elite ko bhadda lagta tha. Is tarah print ne gaon ki kahaniyon ko bachaya bhi aur unhe naya roop bhi diya.

Auratein. Publishers ke liye auratein readers aur writers dono roop mein important thi. Penny magazines unhe target karti thi, achhe manners aur gharelu kaamkaaj ke manuals bhi, aur novelists ek badi female readership par bharosa karte the. Century ke kai sabse mashhoor novelists auratein thi: Jane Austen, Brontë sisters aur George Eliot. Unki heroines ne ek nayi tarah ki aurat ko paribhaashit karne mein madad ki, jismein iccha-shakti, strong personality, pakka iraada aur khud sochne ki taakat ho.

Workers. Lending libraries seventeenth century se chali aa rahi thi. Nineteenth-century England mein yeh clerks aur doosre white-collar workers, kaarigaron aur lower middle class ke liye khud ko educate karne ka zariya ban gayi. Mid-nineteenth century se kaam ke ghante dheere-dheere kam hue, jisse workers ko khud ko behtar banane aur apni baat kehne ka kuch samay mila. Kuch, jo khud se padhna-likhna seekhe the, badi sankhya mein apne political tracts aur autobiographies likhne lage (Table 5.2).

5.5.2 Aur Naye Innovations

Printing machines aur tez hoti gayi. Late eighteenth century tak presses mein wood ki jagah metal aa gaya. Mid-nineteenth century tak New York ke ek inventor, Richard M. Hoe, ne power se chalne wala cylindrical press perfect kar liya tha. Yeh ghante mein 8,000 sheets nikaal sakta tha, jo newspapers ke liye ekdum sahi tha. Late nineteenth century mein offset press aaya, jo ek run mein chhe colours tak print kar sakta tha. Lagbhag 1900 se electric presses ne kaam aur tez kar diya (Fig. 5.6).

Iske baad kai chhote sudhaar aaye: paper feed karne ke behtar tareeke, behtar printing plates, automatic paper reels, aur photoelectric controls jo colours ko bilkul line mein rakhte the (colour register). In sab badlaavon ne milkar printed pages ka roop hi badal diya.

Printers aur publishers bechne ke naye tareeke bhi nikaalte rahe. Nineteenth century ki magazines ne important novels ko instalments mein chhaapa, jisse episodes mein likhne ki ek khaas style ko badhaava mila; jaise Charles Dickens ke shuruaati novels pehle monthly parts mein aaye. 1920s mein English publishers ne popular books ko Shilling Series naam ki sasti series mein becha. Dust cover, yaani book jacket, twentieth century ka innovation hai. Jab 1930s ki Great Depression se book sales ko khatra hua, to publishers ne saste paperback editions nikaale; 1935 mein Britain mein launch hue Penguin paperbacks iska mashhoor example hain.

5.6 India aur Print ki Duniya

Print se pehle India kaise likhta, copy karta aur padhta tha, aur printing press kab aaya? Chalo pata karte hain.

5.6.1 Print ke Daur se Pehle Manuscripts

India mein haath se likhi books ki parampara bahut purani aur bahut samriddh hai. Sanskrit, Arabic aur Persian aur kai regional languages mein manuscripts bache hain, jo sookhe palm leaves ya haath se bane paper par copy kiye gaye, kabhi-kabhi sundar illustrations ke saath. Pages ko surakshit rakhne ke liye unhe sil diya jaata ya wooden covers ke beech daba kar rakha jaata. Printing aane ke baad bhi manuscripts late nineteenth century tak bante rahe.

Phir bhi manuscripts kabhi roz ki zindagi ka hissa nahi bane. Woh bahut mehnge the, aasani se kharaab ho jaate the aur unhe sambhaal kar rakhna padta tha, aur script ki kai alag-alag styles ki wajah se unhe padhna mushkil tha (Fig. 5.7). Gaon ke schools bhi yahi kahani batate hain. Pre-colonial Bengal mein primary schools ka ghana network tha, lekin wahan students aksar koi text padhte hi nahi the: teacher yaad se passages bolte aur class unhe likh leti. Isliye kai log bina koi book padhe likhna seekh gaye.

5.6.2 Print India Aata Hai

India ka pehla printing press 1556 mein Goa pahuncha, Portuguese missionaries ke saath. Wahan ke Jesuit priests ne local language Konkani seekhi aur press ka use religious tracts ke liye kiya; 1674 tak Konkani aur Kanara mein lagbhag 50 titles chhap chuke the. Aur dakshin mein, Catholic priests ne 1579 mein Cochin mein pehli Tamil book chhaapi, aur 1713 mein pehli Malayalam book aayi. Udhar Dutch Protestant missionaries ne 1710 tak 32 Tamil texts print kar diye the, jinmein zyaadatar purani rachnaon ke translations the (Print India pahunchta hai).

English printing der se aayi. East India Company late seventeenth century se presses import kar rahi thi, phir bhi English printing 1780 mein hi shuru hui, aur woh bhi sarkar ke bajaye private enterprise se. Us saal James Augustus Hickey (Hicky bhi likha jaata hai) ne ek weekly, Bengal Gazette, edit karna shuru kiya, jo colonial asar se azaad hone ka daava karta tha:

Hickey ke paper mein bahut saare advertisements chhapte the, jinmein se kuch slaves ki khareed-farokht ke the, aur use Company ke bade officials ke baare mein gossip chhaapne mein mazaa aata tha. Is gossip se Governor-General Warren Hastings bahut naraaz hue. Unhone Hickey ko pareshaan kiya aur aise newspapers ko support kiya jinhe official manzoori mili thi, jo sarkar ki image bigaadne wali reports ka jawab de sakein. 1800 tak kai newspapers aur journals nikal rahe the, aur Indians ne apne papers shuru kar diye the. Sabse pehla ek weekly tha, jiska naam bhi Bengal Gazette tha, jise Rammohun Roy ke saathi Gangadhar Bhattacharya ne publish kiya.

5.7 Religious Reform aur Public Debates

Socho ek behas jo ek aangan mein hone ke bajaye darjanon towns mein padhe jaane wale newspapers mein ladi jaati hai. Nineteenth-century India mein print ne religious debate ke saath yahi kiya. Jab colonial rule ne samaj ko badla, to har dharm ke Indians ne poochha ki unki paramparayein asal mein kya sikhati hain. Reformers riwaaz badalna chahte the; doosre unka bachaav karte the aur reformers ko ek-ek point ka jawab dete the. Dono taraf ke log printed tracts aur newspapers ke zariye khule mein behas karte the. Print ne in arguments ko sirf aage nahi pahunchaya: usne unka svabhaav badla, ek kahin bade audience ko joda jo ab apni raay de sakta tha, aur is takraav se naye ideas nikalne diye (Fig. 5.8).

Bengal mein behas widow immolation (sati), monotheism (ek God mein vishwas), Brahman priests ki power aur idol worship par kendrit thi. Jaise-jaise debate badha, tracts aur newspapers ki sankhya bhi badhi, aur aam readers tak pahunchne ke liye unhe roz ki boli jaane wali bhasha mein likha gaya. 1821 se Rammohun Roy ne Sambad Kaumudi nikaala; unka jawab dene ke liye orthodox kheme ne ek rival paper, Samachar Chandrika, shuru karwaya. 1822 mein do Persian newspapers, Jam-i-Jahan Nama aur Shamsul Akhbar, aur ek Gujarati newspaper, Bombay Samachar, aaye, jo aaj bhi chhapta hai.

North India ke Muslim scholars ka apna sankat tha. Ulama ne Muslim ruling dynasties ko girte dekha aur unhe chinta thi ki naye colonial rulers conversion ko badhaava denge aur Muslim personal law mein dakhal denge. Unka jawab tha print. Saste lithographic presses se woh scriptures ke Persian aur Urdu translations, religious tracts aur newspapers nikaal sake. 1866 mein bani Deoband seminary (textbook mein 1867 diya hai) ne bahut badi sankhya mein fatwas jaari kiye: aise faisle jo believers ko roz ke aacharan par raah dikhate aur Islamic doctrine samjhate the. Century aage badhne ke saath rival Muslim sects aur seminaries badhti gayi, har ek ki dharm ki apni samajh thi aur har ek followers jodne aur virodhiyon ko jawab dene ko utsuk tha. Urdu print ne unhe in muqablon ke liye ek public stage diya.

Hindu religious reading bhi badhi, khaaskar regional languages mein. Tulsidas ne sixteenth century mein Ramcharitmanas likha; iska pehla printed edition 1810 mein Calcutta mein aaya. Kuch hi dashakon mein saste lithographed copies north India ke bazaaron mein bhar gayi. 1880s se do bade presses, Lucknow ka Naval Kishore Press aur Bombay ka Shri Venkateshwar Press, regional languages mein religious texts ki jhadi laga di. Printed book jhole mein kahin bhi ja sakti thi, uska maalik jab chahe padh sakta tha, ya use un logon ki bheed ko zor se padh kar sunaya ja sakta tha jo padh nahi sakte the. Is tarah sacred texts pehle se kahin zyaada logon tak pahunche, aur unke baare mein charcha, debates aur vivaad bhi, har dharm ke andar bhi aur dharmon ke beech bhi.

Print ne baanta, lekin joda bhi. Newspapers ek ilaake ki khabar doosre tak le jaate the, isliye India ke door-door ke hisson ke log khud ko ek bade poore ka hissa mehsoos karne lage: yeh pan-Indian identities ki shuruaat thi.

5.8 Publication ke Naye Roop

Jaise-jaise reading faili, readers aise logon ke baare mein books chahne lage jo unke jaise hon, unke anubhavon, bhaavnaon aur rishton ke saath. Novel, jo Europe mein bana tha, is zaroorat ka jawab tha, aur Indian writers ne jaldi hi ise naye themes aur styles ke saath apna bana liya. Novels se readers anjaani zindagiyon mein jhaank sakte the, aur unse pata chalta tha ki insaani anubhav kitne alag-alag ho sakte hain.

Novel ke saath lyric poems, short stories aur social aur political sawaalon par essays bhi aaye. Har ek ne apne tareeke se logon ki zindagi aur unki andar ki bhaavnaon par, aur unhe shape dene wale social aur political niyamon par dhyaan diya.

Late nineteenth century tak pictures bhi mass copying ke daur mein aa gayi, jisse ek nayi visual culture bani. Presses badhne ke saath ek image hazaaron baar print ho sakti thi. Raja Ravi Varma ne isi maqsad se mythology ke kai scenes paint kiye, aur 1894 se Bombay mein unka apna lithographic press unhe print karta tha. Gareeb wood engravers ne letterpresses ke paas workshops khole aur print shops se orders liye. Bazaar mein saste prints aur calendars itne kam daam ke the ki gareeb parivaar bhi unhe ghar ya kaam ki jagah par laga sakte the. Yeh images tay karne lagi ki aam log religion aur politics, tradition aur modernity, samaj aur culture ko kaise imagine karte hain (Fig. 5.9).

Cartoons bhi aaye. 1870s se journals aur newspapers mein social aur political zindagi par tippani karne wale caricatures chhapne lage. Kuch Western kapdon aur shauk ki nakal karne wale padhe-likhe Indians par hanste the; kuch social badlaav par chinta jataate the. Cartoons political hathiyaar bhi ban gaye: imperial cartoonists nationalists ka mazaak udaate the, aur nationalist cartoonists imperial rule par palatvaar karte the.

5.8.1 Auratein aur Print

Novels aur reform debates ne auraton ki zindagi ko ek public vishay bana diya, jiske baare mein nayi jeevantata aur bhaavna se likha gaya, aur middle-class gharon ki auraton mein reading tezi se badhi. Liberal pita aur pati ghar ki auraton ko ghar par padhaate the. Nineteenth century ke doosre half mein towns aur shehron mein girls ke schools khulne par woh unhe wahan bhejne lage. Journals auraton ki apni writing chhaapte the aur unki padhai ke paksh mein tark dete the; kuch to ghar par padhaane ke liye syllabus aur sahi reading material bhi dete the.

Har parivaar sehmat nahi tha. Kuch conservative Hindu maante the ki padhne wali ladki vidhwa ho jaayegi, aur kuch conservative Muslims ko chinta thi ki Urdu romances padhi-likhi auraton ko bhatka denge. Kuch auraton ne bas is rok ko nahi maana. North India ke ek conservative Muslim parivaar ki ek ladki se ummeed thi ki woh sirf Arabic mein Quran padhe, ek aisi bhasha jo woh samajhti nahi thi. Usne zid ki ki woh aisi bhasha seekhegi jise woh apna keh sake, aur chupke se Urdu padhna-likhna seekh liya. East Bengal ke ek kattar orthodox ghar ki ek young wife, Rashsundari Debi, ne early nineteenth century mein apne kitchen mein chupke se khud padhna seekha. Dashakon baad unhone Amar Jiban (1876) likhi, Bengali mein publish hui pehli full-length autobiography.

Kyunki reform debates aur novels ne auraton ki zindagi ko public topic bana diya tha, readers yeh jaanne ko bhi utsuk the ki auratein khud kya kahengi. 1860s se kuch Bengali women writers, jinmein Kailashbashini Debi bhi thi, ne auraton ki zindagi ka varnan kiya. Unhe gharon mein band rakha jaata aur anpadh rakha jaata, bhaari gharelu kaam ka bojh daala jaata aur jin parivaar walon ki woh dekhbhaal karti thi, wahi unke saath naainsaafi karte the. Aaj ke Maharashtra mein 1880s mein likhne wali Tarabai Shinde aur Pandita Ramabai ne gusse se upper-caste Hindu auraton, aur khaaskar widows, ki badhaali ko ujagar kiya. Us daur ke ek Tamil novel ka ek character batata hai ki social niyamon mein bandhi auraton ke liye books ka kya matlab tha. Woh kehti hai ki uski duniya chhoti hai, phir bhi reading ne use zindagi ki aadhi se zyaada khushi di hai.

Urdu, Tamil, Bengali aur Marathi mein print jaldi badh gaya tha; serious Hindi printing 1870s mein hi shuru hui, aur iska bada hissa jaldi hi auraton ki padhai mein laga. Twentieth century ki shuruaat mein auraton ke journals, jinmein se kuch auratein khud edit karti thi, bahut popular hue. Unke pages mein national movement, widow remarriage, widows ki haalat aur girls ki schooling par behas hoti thi. Kuch gharelu kaamkaaj aur fashion ke tips bhi dete the, aur short stories aur instalments mein novels se readers ka manoranjan karte the.

Auraton ke liye saara print unhe azaad karne ke liye nahi tha. Early twentieth century mein Punjab mein aisi hi popular writing ki baadh aayi. Ram Chaddha ki Istri Dharm Vichar auraton ko aagyakaari patni banna sikha kar tezi se biki. Khalsa Tract Society ne isi message wali sasti booklets nikaali, jinmein se kai 'achhi aurat' ke gunon par samvaad the.

Calcutta mein ek poora mohalla, Battala, popular publishing ke liye tha. Iski dukaanon mein saste religious tracts aur scriptures un books ke saath bikte the jinhe izzatdaar samaj ashleel aur scandalous kehta tha. Late nineteenth century tak Battala ki kai books woodcuts aur coloured lithographs se bhari hoti thi. Pedlars unhe ghar-ghar le jaate the, aur ghar par auratein unhe apne khaali samay mein padh sakti thi.

5.8.2 Print aur Gareeb Log

Print gareeb readers tak bhi pahuncha. Nineteenth-century Madras ke market towns mein chhoti, bahut sasti books chauraahon par bikti thi, jahan bazaar jaate gareeb log unhe utha sakte the. Early twentieth century se khulne wali public libraries ne books tak pahunch aasaan banayi, haalaanki zyaadatar shehron aur towns mein, aur kabhi-kabhi hi khushhaal gaon mein. Aksar ameer local patrons unhe shuru karte the, kyunki library se uske founder ki shaan badhti thi.

Print caste ke khilaaf ek hathiyaar bhi ban gaya. Late nineteenth century se tracts aur essays ne caste discrimination par hamla kiya. Maharashtra mein 'low castes' ke protest movements ka netritva karne wale Jyotiba Phule ne 1873 mein publish hui Gulamgiri ('Slavery') mein caste system ki naainsaafi ko khol kar rakh diya (textbook mein 1871 diya hai). Twentieth century ke caste critics, khaaskar Maharashtra ke B. R. Ambedkar aur Madras ke E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar), ne bahut zor-daar tareeke se likha, aur poore India ke readers ne unka kaam padha. Local protest movements aur sects ne journals aur tracts ki jhadi laga di jo prachin scriptures par sawaal uthate the aur ek zyaada nyaaypoorn bhavishya ki tasveer dikhate the.

Factory workers ke paas apni zindagi ke baare mein likhne ka samay ya padhai kam hi hoti thi, lekin kuch ne likha. 1938 mein Kanpur ke ek millworker Kashibaba ne Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal ('The Question of Small and Big') publish ki, jismein caste exploitation ko class exploitation se joda. Kanpur ke ek aur millworker ne Sudarshan Chakr naam se 1935 aur 1955 ke beech kavitayein likhi; baad mein unhe Sacchi Kavitayan naam se ikattha kiya gaya. 1930s tak Bangalore ke cotton millworkers ne, Bombay ke workers ki dekha-dekhi, apni padhai ke liye libraries khol li thi. Social reformers ne in libraries ko paisa diya, is ummeed mein ki sharaab ki lat kam ho, literacy faile aur kabhi-kabhi workers nationalism ki taraf aayein.

5.9 Print aur Censorship

Sarkarein print ko control karne ki koshish karke dikhati hain ki woh use kitna powerful maanti hain. 1798 tak India mein Company ki sarkar ne censorship par kam hi dhyaan diya. Dilchasp baat yeh hai ki uski pehli rokein Indians par nahi, balki India mein un Englishmen par thi jo Company ke kushasan par hamla karte the aur khaas officers se nafrat karte the. Darr yeh tha ki England mein baithe critics aise hamlon ka use India mein Company ki trade monopoly ko chunauti dene ke liye karenge.

1820s mein controls badhe, jab Calcutta Supreme Court ne press par rok lagane wale regulations jaari kiye, aur Company ne British rule ki tareef karne wale papers ko badhaava diya. English aur Indian-language dono tarah ke papers ke editors ne in rokon ke khilaaf turant petitions di, aur 1835 mein Governor-General Bentinck press laws ko badalne ke liye raazi hue. Liberal official Thomas Macaulay ke banaye naye rules ne pehle ke saalon ki azaadi wapas laa di.

1857 ki revolt ke baad sarkar ka rukh sakht ho gaya. Naraaz Englishmen ne 'native' press par crackdown ki maang ki, aur jaise-jaise Indian-language newspapers khul kar nationalist hote gaye, sarkar sakht controls par vichaar karne lagi. Iska nateeja tha 1878 ka Vernacular Press Act, jo Ireland ke press laws par based tha. Isne sarkar ko Indian-language papers mein chhapne wali har cheez, news reports se lekar editorials tak, ko censor karne ki vyapak power di. Ab officials har province mein vernacular newspapers par nazar rakhte the. Kisi report ko seditious maana jaata to warning di jaati; agar paper use ignore karta, to sarkar press zabt kar sakti thi aur printing machinery confiscate kar sakti thi (Fig. 5.10).

Repression nationalist press ko chup nahi kara saka. Poore India mein nationalist papers badhte rahe, colonial kushasan ko ujagar karte rahe aur nationalist activity ko badhaava dete rahe. Unka gala ghontne ki har koshish se ugra protest bhadka, jisse aur persecution hua aur phir aur protest. 1907 mein Punjab ke revolutionaries ko deport kiya gaya, aur ek saal baad Bengal ke young revolutionaries bombs ki taraf mud gaye. Bal Gangadhar Tilak ne apne newspaper Kesari mein unke baare mein badi hamdardi se likha. 1908 mein unhe sedition ka doshi thehraya gaya aur chhe saal jail ki saza mili. Unki giraftaari se poore India mein protests hue, jismein Bombay ke mill workers ki strike bhi thi.