The Making of a Global World: Class 10 History Chapter 3 Hinglish mein

1 The Pre-modern World

Apne phone, school bag ya cricket bat ka label check karo. Bahut mumkin hai ki raw material ek desh se aaya, parts doosre desh mein jode gaye aur brand kisi teesre desh ka hai. Door-door ki jagahon ke beech links ke is ghane jaal ko globalisation (वैश्वीकरण) kehte hain. Yeh sochna aasaan hai ki jet planes aur internet ne ise invent kiya. Historians is baat se sehmat nahi hain. Hazaaron saalon se trade, migration, paisa aur yahan tak ki germs bhi duniya ke samaajon ko aapas mein baandhte aa rahe hain, aur yeh chapter is lambi kahani ko chaar stages mein follow karta hai.

Yeh connection banaya kisne? Profit ke peeche bhaagte merchants, aastha ki yatra par nikle pilgrims aur priests, gyaan ki talaash mein students, aur persecution se bhaagte refugees. Har musafir ke saamaan mein goods aur sikkon se zyada kuch tha: skills, beliefs, inventions aur kahaniyan unke saath duniya bhar mein ghoomi, aur unke saath, bina dikhe, germs bhi.

Inmein se kuch links hairaan kar dene wale purane hain. Lagbhag 3000 BCE mein hi Indus valley ke shehron aur un ilaakon ke beech, jinhe aaj hum West Asia kehte hain, boats coast ke saath-saath trade kar rahi thi. Maldives ke beaches par ikattha ki gayi aur paise ki tarah use hone wali cowrie shells (कौड़ी) hazaar se zyada saalon tak China aur East Africa ke markets tak pahunchti rahi. Bimariyon ne bhi yahi raaste use kiye. Historians seventh century se germs ko lambi dooriyan tay karte hue follow kar sakte hain, aur 1200s tak woh regularly continents ke beech aa-jaa rahe the.

1.1 Silk Routes duniya ko jodte hain

Socho, Chinese silk ka ek thaan Rome ki taraf ja raha hai. Woh camel caravan se Central Asia ke registaan paar kar sakta hai, Kashgar aur Samarkand jaise market towns mein haath badalte hue. Ya phir woh jahaz se Southeast Asia aur India ka chakkar lagakar Red Sea tak ja sakta hai. Historians in bahut saare raaston ko, zameen ke bhi aur samundar ke bhi, silk routes kehte hain, us cargo ke naam par jisne inhe mashhoor kiya. Common Era se pehle se lekar lagbhag fifteenth century tak, inhone Asia ke regions ko aapas mein aur Europe aur North Africa se joda (Fig. 3.1).

Caravans aur jahazon mein silk ke saath Chinese porcelain, Indian cotton cloth aur India aur Southeast Asia ki pepper aur doosre masale bhi jaate the. Europe aise bahut kam goods banata tha jo Asia ko chahiye the, isliye woh zyaadatar gold aur silver mein payment karta tha.

Traders kabhi akele musafir nahi the. Buddhism, jo eastern India mein shuru hua, in routes ke chauraahon se bahar ki taraf phaila: north mein Central Asia aur China tak, aur east mein Southeast Asia tak. Christian missionaries ne Asia pahunchne ke liye lagbhag pakka in routes ka use kiya, aur kuch sadiyon baad Muslim preachers bhi aaye. Jahan-jahan goods gaye, wahan beliefs aur customs bhi saath gaye.

1.2 Khana bhi travel karta hai: Spaghetti aur Potato

Door-door ke logon ke beech contact ka sabse achha record khana hai, kyunki musafir apne goods ke saath beej aur recipes bhi le jaate the. Noodles aur spaghetti ko hi lo. Ek theory kehti hai ki noodles China mein invent hue aur yeh idea west jaakar Italian pasta ban gaya. Doosri theory Arab traders ko credit deti hai ki woh dried pasta Sicily laaye, jo Italy ke southern sire par ek island hai.11Tumhari textbook ise fifth-century Sicily mein rakhti hai. Sicily mein bane dried pasta ka sabse purana saaf likhit record Arab geographer al-Idrisi ka hai, 1154 mein. Lekin India aur Japan mein bhi log aate ki lambi strands bana rahe the, isliye sachcha jawab yeh hai ki koi nahi jaanta ki pehle kaun tha. Yeh puzzle khud dikhata hai ki pre-modern world mein food ideas kitni aazaadi se ghoomte the.

Ab paanch sau saal pehle ki ek Indian kitchen socho. Usmein aloo, tamatar, hari mirch, makka, moongphali ya shakarkandi nahi hoti. Yeh sab sabse pehle Americas mein wahan ke original rehne walon ne ugaaye the. Yeh Europe, Africa aur Asia tak tabhi pahunche jab Christopher Columbus 1492 mein Asia pahunchne ki ummeed mein Atlantic paar karke west ki taraf nikla, aur uski jagah Caribbean pahunch gaya. (Is chapter mein 'America' ka matlab hai North America, South America aur Caribbean, teeno ek saath.)22Tumhari textbook ki American foods ki list mein soya ka naam bhi hai. Asal mein soya beans sabse pehle China mein ugaaye gaye the, isliye woh India mein east se pahunche, Americas se nahi.

Socho, ek crop ne Europe ke gareebon ke liye kya kiya. Aloo ka ek khet utne hi bade wheat ke khet se kahin zyada logon ka pet bharta hai, isliye potato phailne ke baad gareeb families ne behtar khaya aur lambi zindagi jiyi. Lekin ek hi crop par nirbhar rehna risky hai. Ireland ke sabse gareeb peasants lagbhag poori tarah potatoes par jeene lage. Jab 1845 se ek plant disease, potato blight, ne saal-dar-saal fasal barbaad ki, to famine aa gaya. 1849 tak lagbhag ek million log mar gaye, aur usse bhi zyada log kaam ki talaash mein Ireland chhodkar videsh chale gaye.

1.3 Conquest, Disease aur Trade

1498 mein Vasco da Gama ke jahaz Portugal se Africa ka chakkar lagakar Calicut (Kozhikode) ke paas ruke; chhe saal pehle Columbus Atlantic paar kar chuka tha. Kuch hi dashakon mein Europeans regularly Asia aur America dono ki taraf sail karne lage, aur duniya jaise chhoti hone lagi. Lekin Portuguese kisi khaali samundar mein nahi utre. East Africa, Arabia, India aur Southeast Asia ke jahaz sadiyon se Indian Ocean mein idhar-udhar aa-jaa rahe the, goods, log, ideas aur customs le jaate hue. India is jaal ke beech mein tha. Surat, Calicut, Masulipatnam aur Hugli jaise ports ise west mein Mocha aur Basra se aur east mein Malacca aur Canton se jodte the. Europeans is trade mein shamil hue, iske kuch flows ko bada kiya aur kuch ko Europe ki taraf mod diya.

America alag tha. Hazaaron saalon tak wahan ke logon ka Asia, Africa ya Europe se koi regular contact nahi tha. Contact shuru hote hi uski bahut badi zameen, bharpoor fasalon aur mineral wealth ne poori duniya mein trade aur zindagiyon ko nayi shakl de di. Sabse zyada important tha silver. Andes (jaise Potosí, jo tab Spanish Peru mein tha aur ab Bolivia mein hai) aur Mexico ki badi-badi mines ne Europe ko aur ameer banaya. Europeans ne us silver se Asia ke saath apne trade ka payment kiya. Sone ke ek shandaar shehar, El Dorado, ki kahaniyon ki wajah se seventeenth century mein South America mein ek ke baad ek expeditions bheje gaye. Kisi ko woh nahi mila.

1500s ke beech tak Spain aur Portugal America ke bade hisson ko jeet kar wahan bas rahe the. Kuch hazaar soldiers poore empires ko kaise hara sake? Firepower jawab ka sirf ek hissa hai. Spanish apne saath smallpox bhi laaye. Europeans sadiyon se iske saath jee rahe the, aur bahut se adults ise jhel kar bach chuke the aur unhe yeh dobara nahi ho sakta tha. America ke log itne lambe samay se baaki duniya se kate hue the ki unka is bimari se kabhi saamna hi nahi hua tha, isliye unke shareer mein iske khilaaf koi defence nahi tha. Yeh bimari kisi bhi army se tez gaon-gaon phailti thi, aksar ek bhi soldier ke pahunchne se pehle hi poori community ko maar deti thi. Guns ko defenders chheen kar khud use kar sakte the, lekin smallpox ne hamesha sirf ek hi side ki madad ki (Fig. 3.2).

Europeans ek anjaan zameen tak pahunchne ke liye samundar kyun paar karte? Bahut se log kisi cheez se bhaag rahe the. 1800s tak aam Europeans bhookh, gareebi, bheed bhare shehron aur baar-baar aane wali epidemics ke saath jeete the, aur jo log official church se alag tareeke se pooja karte the, yaani religious dissenters, unhe persecution ka khatra tha. Hazaaron log America ke liye nikal pade. Wahan eighteenth century tak ek aur migration chal raha tha, ek zabardasti wala. Africans ko pakda gaya, Atlantic ke paar jahazon mein laaya gaya aur European buyers ke liye sugar aur cotton ugaane wale plantations par slaves ki tarah kaam karwaya gaya.

1700s tak bhi India aur China duniya ke sabse ameer deshon mein gine jaate the aur Asia ke andar trade par unka dabdaba tha. Lekin kaha jaata hai ki China ne fifteenth century mein hi overseas contact se peeche hatna shuru kar diya tha. Uske peeche hatne aur Americas ke badhte vazan ne milkar dheere-dheere world trade ke centre ko west ki taraf kheencha, jab tak Europe uske beech mein nahi aa gaya.

2 The Nineteenth Century (1815–1914)

1815 mein duniya ke upar se udo aur phir 1914 mein, to tum use mushkil se pehchaan paoge. Railways, steamships, factories, empires aur naye ideas ne badal diya tha ki samaaj kaise jeete hain aur desh ek doosre ke saath kaise deal karte hain. Economists is century ko samajhne ke liye deshon ke beech teen tarah ke movement ko track karte hain, jinhe woh flows kehte hain (Fig. 3.3):

• Trade: goods ka flow, jaise wheat, cotton ya cloth. Is daur mein iska matlab zyaadatar goods tha, services nahi.
• Labour: un logon ka flow jo kaam ki talaash mein migrate karte hain.
• Capital: door ki jagahon mein thode ya lambe samay ke liye invest kiye gaye paise ka flow, jaise railways, mines ya plantations mein.

Dekho, examples aapas mein kaise jude hain: British capital ne woh railways banayi jo American wheat le jaati thi, aur woh wheat migrant workers ne ugaaya tha. In flows ne aam logon ki zindagi ko pehle se kahin zyada chhua, lekin teeno barabar azaad nahi the. Goods aur paisa aam taur par logon se zyada aasaani se borders paar karte the, kyunki governments logon par zyada rok lagati thi.

2.1 Ek World Economy Banti Hai

Shuru karte hain us cheez se jo har family ko chahiye: bread. Sadiyon tak desh apne hi kheton se apna pet bharne ki koshish karte rahe. 1800s mein Britain ko pata chala ki iski kya keemat ho sakti hai.

1700s ke aakhir se Britain ki population tezi se badh rahi thi, aur uske towns aur factories phail rahe the, isliye grain ki demand, aur uski keemat, badhti ja rahi thi. Parliament mein baithe landowners oonchi keematon se khush the, aur Corn Laws videshi grain (jise British 'corn' kehte the) ke imports par rok lagakar unhe bachate the. Iski keemat do groups ne chukayi: towns mein rehne wale log, jo bread khareedte the, aur factory owners, jinke workers ko bread khareedne ke liye zyada wages chahiye the. Unki campaign 1846 mein jeet gayi, jab Corn Laws khatm kar diye gaye.

Iske baad ek chain reaction hua (Fig. 3.4). Ab videshi grain British grain se saste mein bikne laga, aur teen cheezein hui.

1. British farming simat gayi. Bahut se farms ab profit nahi kama paate the, khet chhod diye gaye, aur hazaaron farm labourers ka kaam chala gaya. Kuch shehron ki taraf chale gaye; kuch jahaz se videsh nikal gaye.
2. Britain ke log zyada khane lage. Sasti bread ki wajah se families ke paas doosre khane ke liye paisa bachne laga, aur lagbhag 1850 ke baad industry ke tezi se badhne par badhti wages ne food imports ko aur upar dhakel diya.
3. Khana videsh se aana zaroori ho gaya. Nayi demand poori karne ke liye doosre continents ke farmers Britain ke liye grain ugaane lage.

Prairie ya jungle ko British market ke liye wheat farm mein badalne ke liye chaar cheezein chahiye thi. Eastern Europe, Russia, America aur Australia mein zameen saaf ki gayi. Transport ka matlab tha coast tak railways aur naye ya bade harbours. Paisa zyaadatar London jaise financial centres se aaya. Aur zameen par basne aur kheti karne ke liye log chahiye the, jabki America aur Australia mein log kam the. Is aakhri zaroorat ne history ke sabse bade migrations mein se ek ko shuru kar diya. Nineteenth century mein lagbhag 50 million Europeans America aur Australia gaye. Maana jaata hai ki poori duniya mein lagbhag 150 million log behtar zindagi ki talaash mein oceans aur continents paar karke apna ghar chhod gaye.

Ek hi zindagi ke andar farming ek worldwide business ban chuki thi: 1890 tak khana, workers, paisa, zameen ka use aur technology, sab ek hi global system mein bandh gaye the. Isi kahani ka ek chhota version India mein bhi hua. West Punjab mein colonial government ne irrigation canals khudwayi jinhone semi-desert ko export ke liye wheat aur cotton ke kheton mein badal diya. Punjab ke doosre hisson ke peasants ko in canal colonies mein basaya gaya, aur kheton ke beech Lyallpur (ab Faisalabad, Pakistan mein) jaise naye market towns ubhre.

Khana sirf ek example tha. British textile mills ki zaroorat poori karne ke liye cotton ki kheti poori duniya mein phaili, aur nayi industries ko supply dene ke liye rubber plantations phaile. Regions itni tezi se ek-do commodities mein specialise hue ki andaaza hai ki 1820 aur 1914 ke beech world trade 25 se 40 guna badha. Iska lagbhag 60 per cent primary products mein tha, yaani grain, raw cotton aur coal jaise unprocessed goods.

2.2 Technology ka Role

Nineteenth century mein railways, steamships aur telegraph ne dooriyan kam kar di. Yeh sochna aasaan hai ki inventions ne akele hi badlaav laaya, lekin asar dono taraf tha: technologies social, political aur economic zarooraton ki wajah se develop hui aur phaili. Empire iska ek example hai. Colonial expansion ne transport ki demand paida ki, jisse tez railways, halke wagons aur bade jahazon mein investment aaya. In sab ne phir door ke farms se shehron tak khana saste mein pahunchaya.

Meat dikhata hai ki yeh tukde aapas mein kaise fit hue (Fig. 3.5). Socho, ek zinda bail ko Atlantic ke paar bhejna, jaise traders 1870s tak karte the. Use hafton tak jagah, chaara aur paani chahiye, aur ho sakta hai Europe pahunchne se pehle woh beemar pad jaaye, uska vazan ghat jaaye ya woh mar jaaye. Itne nuksaan ke saath meat ameeron ka khana bana raha, aur kyunki kam log hi use khareed sakte the, zyada meat banane ki koi khaas wajah nahi thi.

Refrigerated ships ne poora hisaab badal diya. Ab jaanwar wahin kaate jaane lage jahan unhe paala jaata tha, America, Australia ya New Zealand mein, aur meat frozen haalat mein ocean paar karta tha. Frozen carcasses se bhara hold zinda cattle se bhare hold se kahin zyada khana le jaata tha, aur nuksaan bahut kam hota tha, isliye Europe mein meat sasta ho gaya. Bahut si gareeb families (sab nahi) bread aur potatoes ke saath meat, butter aur eggs bhi khane lagi. Iska ek political side-effect bhi tha: achha khane wale workers ghar par protest kam karte the aur videsh mein empire ke liye taaliyan zyada bajaate the.

2.3 Nineteenth Century ke Aakhir ka Colonialism

Badhte trade ki ek keemat thi, aur woh keemat colonised logon ne chukayi. Poore Asia aur Africa mein world economy se judna aam taur par conquest ke zariye hua, aur conquest ne logon se unki azaadi, unki zameen aur unki rozi-roti chheen li. Dard bhare economic, social aur ecological badlaav hi woh raasta the jisse in samaajon ko world market mein kheencha gaya.

Africa dikhata hai ki yeh kitni tezi se ho sakta tha. Aaj Africa ke political map par bahut se borders registaanon aur junglon ke beech bilkul seedhi lines mein chalte hain. Inmein se kai European officials ne map par ruler se kheenche the, jinhone wahan rehne wale logon par zara bhi dhyaan nahi diya. 1884–85 mein badi European powers Berlin mein mili aur tay kiya ki Africa ka baaki bantwara aapas mein kaise karna hai. Britain aur France ne apne empires mein bahut bade ilaake jode, jabki Belgium aur Germany pehli baar colonial powers bane. United States 1898 mein unke saath aa gaya, jab usne ek chhoti si war ke baad Spain se Philippines, Puerto Rico aur Guam le liye.

Rinderpest, yaani Cattle Plague

Africa ki ek tabahi dikhati hai ki conquest ke daur mein cattle ki ek bimari bhi hazaaron logon ki zindagi kaise badal sakti thi.33Tumhari textbook is hisse ko 2.4 number deti hai, wahi number jo woh indentured labour wale agle section ko deti hai, isliye hum ise 2.3 ke andar hi rakhte hain. 1890s mein rinderpest naam ka tezi se phailne wala cattle plague poore continent mein phail gaya. Yeh itna important kyun tha, yeh samajhne ke liye pehle dekho ki iske aane se pehle Africans kaise jeete the.

Khud ko 1880 ke ek African charwahe ki jagah rakh kar socho. Tumhari family ke paas zameen hai, aur aas-paas aur bhi bahut zameen hai; tumhare cattle tumhe doodh, meat aur daulat dete hain; sabse paas wali trading post par aisa kuch khaas nahi bikta jo tumhe chahiye. Tum wages ke liye kaam karne ghar kyun chhodoge? Sadiyon se zyaadatar Africans ka guzaara zameen aur pashuon se hota tha, aur bahut zameen aur kaafi kam logon wale is continent mein wages wala kaam kam hi milta tha.

Europeans bilkul yahi chahte the. Woh Africa ki zameen aur minerals ke liye aaye the, aur aise plantations aur mines chalana chahte the jinki crops aur metals Europe bheje jaayein. 1886 mein South Africa ke Witwatersrand mein gold mila, aur 1890s tak South Africa duniya ke gold ka paanchve hisse se zyada paida karta tha. Europeans ki nazar se mushkil thi workers dhoondhna, isliye employers aur colonial governments ne ek workforce banane ki thaan li.

Phir aaya rinderpest (Fig. 3.6). Iska raasta trace kiya ja sakta hai. Italy East Africa mein Eritrea par hamla kar raha tha, aur apne soldiers ka pet bharne ke liye usne British raaj wale Asia se cattle import kiye, jinmein se kuch infected the. 1880s ke aakhir mein yeh bimari Africa ke herds mein pahunchi aur tezi se west ki taraf bhaagi. 1892 tak yeh Atlantic coast tak pahunch gayi, aur 1897 tak Cape, yaani continent ke southern sire tak. Jab tak yeh thami, lagbhag har das mein se nau cattle mar chuke the.

Jin logon ka khana aur daulat cattle mein gine jaate the, unke liye yeh barbaadi thi, aur colonisers ne ise apne fayde mein badal diya. Jiske paas bache hue thode se herds the, power usi ke paas thi, aur colonial governments, planters aur mine owners ne pakka kiya ki woh herds unhi ke paas rahein. Bina cattle wale Africans ko ab wages ke liye kaam karna pada, aur yeh plague Africa ko jeetne ka ek tool ban gaya. Kai doosre colonised samaajon ne bhi apni rozi-roti ke purane tareekon ko isi tarah barbaad hote dekha.

2.4 India se Indentured Labour Migration

Nineteenth-century boom se faayda kisko hua, aur uski keemat kisne chukayi? India ke indentured workers ki kahani dono sawaalon ka jawab deti hai: unke labour ne plantation owners ke liye bahut daulat paida ki, jabki woh khud gareebi aur sakht discipline mein jeete rahe.

1800s ke dauraan India aur China ke laakhon labourers duniya bhar ke plantations, mines aur sadak aur railway banane wali jagahon ke liye nikle. Indians aam taur par indentured labourers (गिरमिटिया, English shabd 'agreement' se) ki tarah jaate the. Ek worker ek fixed term ke liye, aam taur par paanch saal, ek employer ke plantation par kaam karne ka contract sign karta tha. Contract mein vaada hota tha ki term khatm hone par use India wapas laaya jaayega.

Recruits zyaadatar chaar ilaakon se aate the: Uttar Pradesh ke eastern districts, Bihar, central Indian plateau aur Tamil Nadu ke drought-prone hisse. Yahi ilaake kyun? 1800s ke beech tak wahan ke gaon ke weavers aur doosre craftspeople ka dhandha chhin raha tha aur landlords zyada lagaan maang rahe the. Junglon aur kheton ko bhi mines aur plantations ke liye le liya ja raha tha. Jo family lagaan chukane mein peeche reh jaati, woh jeene ke liye udhaar leti, aur jab karz badhta jaata, to kaam dhoondhne ke liye ghar chhodna hi ek raasta lagne lagta (Fig. 3.7).

Jahaz unhe duniya ke doosre sire par sugar colonies tak le gaye. Woh Caribbean mein Trinidad, Guyana aur Surinam, Indian Ocean mein Mauritius aur Pacific mein Fiji gaye. Kuch kam door gaye, jaise Tamils Ceylon (Sri Lanka) aur Malaya, aur kai aur logon ko Assam ke tea gardens ke liye recruit kiya gaya.

Employers recruiting agents par nirbhar the, jinhe har sign karwaye gaye insaan ke liye ek chhoti fees milti thi. Kuch gaon walon ko zyada manaane ki zaroorat nahi padti thi: ghar par zindagi mushkil thi, aur contract gareebi ya bure bartaav se nikalne ka raasta lagta tha. Doosron ko dhokha diya gaya. Agents jagah, safar, kaam aur rehne ke haalaat ki jhoothi tasveer dikhate the. Kuch recruits ko docks par jaakar hi pata chala ki woh ek ocean paar karne wale hain. Na chahne wale logon ko kabhi-kabhi seedhe pakad kar le jaaya jaata tha.

Koi hairaani nahi ki historians ne nineteenth-century indenture ko 'a new system of slavery' kaha hai. Workers poori tarah kisi ki property nahi the, lekin plantations par unhe rehne aur kaam karne ke sakht haalaat mile aur unke paas bahut kam legal rights the. Pehchaan ke liye kai workers ki photo li jaati thi aur unhe number se register kiya jaata tha: unke employers ke liye worker ka number uske naam se zyada maayne rakhta tha.

Workers sirf victims nahi the. Kuch bhaag kar jungle mein chale gaye, pakde jaane par sakht sazaa ka khatra uthakar. Bahut se aur logon ne culture ke zariye muqabla kiya, India se laayi cheezon ko naye gharon mein mili cheezon ke saath milakar:

• Trinidad mein Hosay: Imam Hussain ke naam par Muharram ka procession ek rangeen street carnival ban gaya, jismein har race aur religion ke workers shaamil hote the.
• Rastafarianism: kuch scholars Jamaica ke is protest religion ko, jise reggae star Bob Marley ne mashhoor kiya, Caribbean mein Indian migrants ke saath contact se jodte hain.
• Chutney music: Bhojpuri folk songs aur Caribbean rhythms ka ek jaandaar mel jo indenture ke baad ki zindagi se nikla; Trinidad aur Guyana mein aaj bhi ise khoob pasand kiya jaata hai.

Inmein se har ek khud globalisation ka ek chhota example hai: door-door ki jagahon ki cheezein milkar kuch aisa ban gayi jo pehle kabhi tha hi nahi.

Contract khatm hone par zyaadatar workers ne wahin rehna chuna, aur jo India wapas gaye unmein se bhi kai jaldi hi un islands par laut aaye jo ab unka ghar ban chuke the. Aaj in deshon mein unke vanshaj badi communities banate hain. Trinidad mein paida hue writer V.S. Naipaul ko 2001 mein Literature ka Nobel Prize mila. Guyana ke do mashhoor West Indies batsmen, Shivnarine Chanderpaul aur Ramnaresh Sarwan, bhi indentured migrants ke vanshaj hain. Twentieth century ki shuruaat mein Indian nationalists ne indenture ko kroor aur beizzati bhara bata kar uske khilaaf campaign chalaya, aur 1921 mein ise khatm kar diya gaya.44Videsh mein indenture ke liye recruitment March 1917 mein rok di gayi thi; 1921 woh date hai jo tumhari textbook abolition ke liye deti hai. Iske baad dashakon tak indentured workers ke vanshajon ko, jinhe aksar beizzati se 'coolies' kaha jaata tha, Caribbean mein bahari samjha gaya. India se kat chuke aur jahan rehte the wahan bhi poori tarah na apnaaye gaye, woh ek akelapan mehsoos karte the jise Naipaul ne apne shuruaati novels mein explore kiya.

2.5 Videsh mein Indian Entrepreneurs

Burma mein dhaan ke liye nayi zameen saaf karne wale peasant ko apni pehli fasal se bahut pehle paise chahiye the, beej, auzaar, khane aur mazdooron ke liye. Banks bade plantations ko loan dete the, use nahi. Aksar udhaar dene wala Indian hota tha.

Shikaripuri shroffs aur Nattukottai Chettiars un bahut se Indian banking aur trading groups mein se do the jo Central aur Southeast Asia mein export crops ugaane wale farmers ko paisa dete the. Kuch paisa unka apna hota tha; kuch woh European banks se udhaar lete the. Woh hundis (हुंडी) naam ke credit notes se lambi dooriyon tak paisa bhejte the, aur apne firms ko apne hi achhe se organised business structures ke zariye chalate the. Africa mein Indian merchants aur moneylenders ne European conquest ke peeche-peeche business jamaya. Sindh ke Hyderabad ke traders ne aur aage dekha, colonies se bhi kahin door. 1860s se duniya bhar ke vyast ports mein unki dukaanein local aur imported curios bechti thi, tourists ki badhti bheed ko, jo ab surakshit aur aaramdeh passenger ships par travel kar sakte the.

2.6 Indian Trade, Colonialism aur Global System

Indian cloth ki Europe mein sadiyon se badi qadr thi. Phir Britain ki apni cotton mills badhi, aur unke maalik chahte the ki Indian muqabla raaste se hat jaaye. Government ne imported cloth par tariffs laga kar unki baat maan li, aur badhiya Indian cotton ka Britain aana ruk gaya. Yeh sirf pehla jhatka tha. British mills, jo ab Britain ki zaroorat se zyada bana rahi thi, 1800s ki shuruaat se videsh mein khareedar dhoondhne lagi. Is tarah Indian weavers, jo pehle hi Britain se bahar ho chuke the, duniya bhar ke markets mein saste British cloth se takraaye.

India ke export figures yeh kahani batate hain (Fig. 3.8). Lagbhag 1800 mein India ke exports mein cotton cloth lagbhag 30 per cent tha. 1815 tak yeh share 15 per cent reh gaya, aur 1870s tak 3 per cent se neeche gir gaya. Raw materials ulti disha mein gaye: India ke exports mein raw cotton ka share 1812 mein 5 per cent se badhkar 1871 mein 35 per cent ho gaya. India ko manufactured goods bechne wale desh se raw materials supply karne wala desh banaya ja raha tha. Kapde ki neeli dye indigo bhi kai dashakon tak ek bada export raha.

Opium is kahani ka ek kaala hissa hai. Britain ko Chinese tea chahiye thi lekin uske paas aise kam goods the jo China khareedna chahta tha. India mein ugaaya gaya opium iska jawab bana. 1820s se China ko shipments tezi se badhe, aur kuch samay tak opium India ka sabse bada single export raha. China mein isse kamaya silver Britain ki tea aur doosre Chinese goods ka payment karta tha.

Britain ke hisaab-kitaab ko ledgers ke ek set ki tarah socho, har trading partner ke liye ek. India wale ledger mein Britain ne kharch se zyada kamaya: uske factory goods India mein bhar-bhar ke aate the, jinki keemat wahan se khareede grain aur raw materials se kahin zyada thi. Ise trade surplus kehte hain. USA aur industrial Europe ke ledgers mein ulta tha: Britain bechta kam aur khareedta zyada tha, yaani trade deficit. In deshon ko apne exports se India ki kamaai, Britain tak pahunch kar, is kami ko poora karne mein madad karti thi (Fig. 3.9). Economists ise multilateral settlement system kehte hain, aur ismein apna role nibhakar India late nineteenth century mein world economy ka ek bahut zaroori sahara ban gaya.

Yahi surplus so-called home charges ko bhi cover karta tha, yaani woh payments jo saal-dar-saal India se Britain jaate the. Inmein Indian service se retire hue British officials ki pensions, Government of India ke videsh mein liye loans ka interest, aur British officials aur traders ka privately ghar bheja gaya paisa shaamil tha.

3 The Inter-war Economy

First World War (1914–18) zyaadatar Europe mein ladi gayi, lekin uske jhatke har continent tak pahunche. World economy ke liye isne teen dashakon ka crisis shuru kiya: zabardast utaar-chadhaav, political instability aur, aakhir mein, ek doosri aur usse bhi bhayaanak world war.

3.1 War ke Dauraan Badlaav

August 1914 mein bahut se leaders ne poore bharose se kaha ki soldiers Christmas tak ghar laut aayenge. Iske bajaye ladaai chaar saal se zyada chali. Yeh itni jaanleva kyun thi? Ladne wale desh duniya ki leading industrial powers the. Unki factories ab bahut badi maatra mein machine guns, tanks, aircraft aur poison gas bana rahi thi: yeh pehli modern industrial war thi. Trains aur steamships har continent se recruit kiye gaye laakhon soldiers ko, jinmein India ke das lakh se zyada bhi the, front tak le gaye.

War ne Europe ki economies ko teen tarah se badla:

• Kam workers. Lagbhag 9 million log maare gaye aur kareeb 20 million ghayal hue, aisa qatl-e-aam jo industrial weapons se pehle namumkin tha. Inmein zyaadatar kaam karne ki umar ke aadmi the, isliye families ne kamaane wale kho diye aur war ke baad ghar ki income ghat gayi.
• War economies. Factories roz ki cheezon ki jagah guns, shells aur uniforms banane lagi.
• Kaam par women. Jab aadmi front par chale gaye, to women ne woh kaam sambhale jo pehle sirf aadmiyon ke maane jaate the, munitions factories, offices aur transport mein.

Wars mehngi hoti hain, aur dushman deshon ke beech trade ruk chuka tha. Britain ne apni ladaai ka bada kharcha USA se udhaar liye paise se chukaya, American banks se aur un aam Americans se jinhone British bonds khareede. 1914 se pehle USA mein videshiyon ke assets Americans ke videshi assets se zyada the. 1918 tak yeh ulat gaya, aur USA ek international debtor se international creditor ban gaya (Fig. 3.10).

3.2 War ke baad Recovery

Shaanti se recovery aasaan nahi hui. 1914 se pehle duniya ki leading economy Britain dikhata hai kyun: war ke baad use ek saath teen problems jhelni padi.

1. Markets haath se gaye. Jab British factories war ke kaam mein lagi thi, tab India aur Japan mein industries khadi ho gayi. Shaanti aane par Britain Indian market par apni purani pakad wapas nahi pa saka, aur world trade mein Japan ki barabari karne mein use mushkil hui.
2. Bhaari karz. War ladne ke liye USA se udhaar li gayi bahut badi rakam use chukaani thi.
3. Naukriyan gayi. War ne ek boom paida kiya tha: demand, output aur jobs, sab badhe. Jab war orders ruke aur government ne shaanti ke samay ki income ke hisaab se apna kharch bahut kam kar diya, to boom bust mein badal gaya. 1921 tak har paanch mein se ek British worker berozgaar tha, aur war ke baad ke saalon mein naukri jaane ka darr chhaya raha.

Farmers ka war ke baad apna alag crisis tha, aur wheat ise sabse achhe se dikhata hai. 1914 se pehle: eastern Europe duniya ke main wheat exporters mein se ek tha. 1914–18: war ne woh grain rok diya, isliye Canada, USA aur Australia ke farmers ne kami poori karne ke liye bahut bade naye khet jote. 1918 ke baad: eastern Europe ke farms phir se khade ho gaye, lekin videsh ke naye khet bhi paida karte rahe. Bahut zyada wheat ke liye bahut kam khareedar the; keematein giri, farm incomes ghati aur karz badhta gaya.

3.3 Mass Production aur Consumption ka Daur

USA ne zyada tezi se wapsi ki. Jaisa humne dekha, war ne uski economy ko mazboot kiya tha, aur war ke turant baad ek chhoti si mandi ke baad 1920s ki shuruaat tak woh phir se tezi se badh raha tha. Is growth ki ek khaas baat thi mass production: ek jaisi cheezein bahut badi sankhya mein jaldi aur saste mein banana. Iski jadein 1800s ke aakhir tak jaati hain, lekin sirf 1920s mein hi yeh cheezein banane ka standard American tareeka bana.

Iske sabse mashhoor pioneer the car banane wale Henry Ford. Unki line ko ek worker ki jagah se socho. Ek car aati hai, tum apna part fit karte ho, wahi part usi tarah, aur car aage badh jaati hai jab agli aa jaati hai. Speed tum nahi, belt tay karti hai, aur kuch seconds ka bhi rukna aage ke sabko rok deta hai. Ford ne yeh idea Chicago ke meat-packing plants se liya, jahan carcasses ek chalti chain se latakte the aur har butcher ek hi cut lagata tha, aur ise Detroit mein car banane par apply kiya. Har worker ka output tezi se badha: ab assembly line se lagbhag har teen minute mein ek car nikalti thi, pehle se kahin tez. T-Model Ford se pehle koi bhi car kabhi mass-produce nahi hui thi.

Bahut se workers yeh dabaav jhel nahi paaye, aur itne log naukri chhod gaye ki Ford ko hamesha naye log rakhne aur train karne padte the. January 1914 mein unka jawab headlines mein chha gaya: unhone roz ki wage doguni karke $5 kar di. Iske saath do shartein thi. Unke plants mein unions allowed nahi the. Aur line lagaataar tez hoti gayi, taaki har worker har dollar ke badle zyada banaye aur badhi hui wage apna kharch khud nikaal le. Ford ne baad mein is faisle par sheikhi baghaari:

Jaldi hi doosri American firms ne Ford ke tareeke apna liye, jinhe Fordism kaha jaane laga, aur 1920s mein European factories ne bhi unki nakal ki. Ab har cheez banane mein kam kharch aata tha, isliye cars aur doosre engineered goods saste hue, aur behtar tankhwaah wale workers unhe khareed sakte the. 1919 aur 1929 ke beech USA mein har saal banne wali cars ki sankhya doguni se bhi zyada ho gayi, lagbhag 2 million se 5 million se upar. Families ne refrigerators, washing machines, radios aur gramophones bhi khareede, aam taur par hire purchase par: saamaan turant ghar le aao aur hafte ya mahine ki instalments mein payment karo. Gharon ke banne aur ghar ki ownership mein boom ne, jo loans se hi chal raha tha, demand ko aur badhaya.

Saste goods, aasaan credit aur naye gharon ne 1920s ko ek kabhi na khatm hone wale boom jaisa bana diya (Fig. 3.11). Investment ne jobs aur incomes paida kiye, incomes ne spending badhayi, aur spending ne aur investment ko badhawa diya. America ki daulat videsh tak bhi pahunchi. 1923 se woh phir se videsh capital bhej raha tha, ab duniya ke sabse bade lender ki tarah, aur uske loans aur khareed ne chhe saal tak Europe ko sambhalne aur world trade ko badhne mein madad ki. Yeh achha samay tikne wala nahi tha. 1929 tak duniya ab tak ki sabse buri depression ki taraf phisal rahi thi.

3.4 The Great Depression

Great Depression lagbhag 1929 se 1930s ke beech tak chali. Yeh har desh par ek hi samay ya ek hi zor se nahi giri, lekin lagbhag har jagah output, jobs, incomes aur trade dhah gaye. Sabse zyada nuksaan kisko hua? Aam taur par farmers aur farming regions ko: crops ki keematein factory goods ki keematon se zyada giri, aur zyada lambe samay tak neeche rahi.

Depression ko koi ek cause nahi samjha sakta. War ke baad ki kamzor economy ki kai kamiyan ek saath mil gayi.

Pehla, bahut zyada farm produce. Farm prices pehle se gir rahi thi. Har farmer ne aisa kiya jo ek family ke liye samajhdaari thi: apni income bachane ke liye usne zyada ugaaya aur bazaar mein zyada bheja. Lekin jab laakhon farmers ne yahi kiya, to extra supply ne bazaar ko bhar diya aur keematon ko aur neeche dhakel diya. Fasalein bina bike sad gayi. Neeche diye model mein is trap ko khud try karo.

Doosra, udhaar ka paisa jo gayab ho gaya. 1920s ke beech mein kai deshon ne apne investments ka payment USA ke loans se kiya. Achhe samay mein America se udhaar lena aasaan tha, lekin lenders ghabraaye hue the, aur mushkil dikhte hi woh tezi se peeche hat gaye. 1928 ke pehle chhe mahino mein USA ka videshi lending $1 billion se upar tha; baarah mahine baad yeh ghat kar uska lagbhag ek chauthai reh gaya (Fig. 3.13). October 1929 mein New York stock exchange par share prices crash ho gaye, aur panic aur gehra ho gaya. American credit par nirbhar desh achanak gehre crisis mein the.

Figure is jhatke ki lehar ko trace karta hai. American paise par nirbhar European banks doob gaye, aur British pound sterling jaisi currencies dhah gayi. Latin America aur doosri jagahon par khana aur raw materials paida karne walon ki keematein aur neeche chali gayi. Aur jab USA ne apne producers ko bachane ke liye kahin oonchi import duties laga di (1930 ka Smoot–Hawley Tariff, jise tumhari textbook duties ko doguna karna batati hai), to world trade phir se simat gaya.

USA ke andar crisis khud ko hi badhata gaya, aur kisi bhi industrial desh ko isse zyada chot nahi lagi. Ghabraaye hue banks ne desh ke andar udhaar dena band kar diya aur apne loans wapas maangne lage. Farmers ke paas bina bike crops reh gaye, families ki savings doob gayi aur firms band ho gayi. Jo families apni kisht nahi chuka paayi, unke ghar, cars aur credit par khareedi doosri cheezein chhin gayi. 1920s ki khushhaali lagbhag raaton-raat gayab ho gayi. Jaise-jaise berozgaari badhi, bina kaam ke aadmi aur auratein koi bhi kaam milne ki ummeed mein ek shehar se doosre shehar paidal ghoomte rahe.

Aakhir mein banking system khud hi toot gaya. Banks ne jo invest ya udhaar diya tha woh wapas nahi aaya, isliye woh apne depositors ko paisa nahi de paaye, aur hazaaron banks doob gaye. Nuksaan chaunka dene wala tha: 1933 tak 4,000 se zyada banks band ho chuke the, aur 1929 se 1932 ke chaar saalon mein lagbhag 110,000 firms fail ho gayi. 1935 tak zyaadatar industrial deshon mein thodi recovery shuru ho gayi thi. Lekin zakhm gehre the aur lambe samay tak rahe: depression ne politics, deshon ke aapsi rishte aur ek poori generation ke paise aur kaam ke baare mein sochne ka tareeka badal diya.

3.5 India aur Great Depression

India par depression ka asar dikhata hai ki twentieth century ki shuruaat tak world economy kitni kas kar bun chuki thi. Ab jhatke ek region se doosre tak tezi se pahunchte the, isliye New York ka crash kuch hi mahino mein Bengal ke ek gaon mein mehsoos ho sakta tha.

Kyunki colonial India duniya ko farm produce bechta aur manufactured goods khareedta tha (Section 2.6), mandi turant uske paas pahunch gayi (Fig. 3.14). 1928 aur 1934 ke beech Indian trade lagbhag aadha reh gaya, dono taraf. World prices ne Indian prices ko bhi apne saath neeche kheencha: unhi chhe saalon mein wheat ki keemat aadhi ho gayi.

Sabse zyada nuksaan gaon ko hua. Ab peasant ki fasal kahin kam daam mein bikti thi, phir bhi colonial government utna hi land revenue maangti thi. Isliye tax ghatti income ka kahin bada hissa kha jaata tha. Export ke liye cash crops ugaane wali families ko sabse zyada maar padi.

Bengal ke jute growers dikhate hain ki yeh kaise hua. Unka raw jute un mills mein jaata tha jo gunny bags banati thi, zyaadatar export ke liye. Jab videshi khareedaron ne gunny bags ke order dena band kiya, to raw jute ki keemat 60 per cent se zyada gir gayi. Achhe daam ki ummeed mein kai growers ne apni fasal badhane ke liye udhaar liya tha; ab har fasal pichhli se kam kamaati thi, aur unke karz badhte hi gaye.

Poore India mein gaon ka karz badhta gaya. Apna bakaaya chukane ke liye peasants ne jo bhi bachaaya tha woh kharch kar diya, apni zameen moneylenders ke paas girvi rakh di aur gehne, gold aur silver bech diye. Isliye depression ke saalon mein India se bahut badi maatra mein gold bahar gaya. Us zamaane ke sabse mashhoor economist John Maynard Keynes ne kaha ki is Indian gold ne world economy ko sambhalne mein madad ki. Isne Britain ko zaroor jaldi sambhalne mein madad ki, lekin apni patni ki choodiyan bechne wale peasant ko isse kuch nahi mila. Gaon ka yahi gussa Civil Disobedience Movement ka background tha, jise Mahatma Gandhi ne 1930 mein depression ke gehraate hue Dandi March se shuru kiya.55Tumhari textbook 1931 kehti hai. Dandi March 12 March 1930 ko shuru hua tha; movement 1931 mein Gandhi–Irwin Pact ke baad roka gaya aur 1932 mein phir shuru hua.

4 World Economy ko Phir se Banana: The Post-war Era

First World War khatm hue mushkil se bees saal hue the ki Second World War chhid gayi (1939–45). Nazi Germany, Italy aur Japan Axis ki aguaai kar rahe the; Allied side mein Britain, France, Soviet Union aur USA the. Chhe saal tak yeh kai fronts par ladi gayi, zameen par, samundar mein aur hawa mein. June 1941 mein Germany ka Soviet Union par hamla ek turning point saabit hua.

Isme jaanon ka nuksaan history mein sabse zyada tha. Kam se kam 60 million log seedhe ya indirectly maare gaye, jo 1939 mein zinda sabhi logon ka lagbhag 3 per cent tha, aur laakhon aur ghayal hue. Zyaadatar victims soldiers nahi the. Civilians kahin zyada sankhya mein mare, bomb gire shehron mein, gheraabandi mein, akaal aur qatl-e-aam mein. Air raids aur artillery ne Europe aur Asia ke shehron ko khandahar bana diya, jinmein Soviet shehar Stalingrad bhi tha, aur poori-poori economies barbaad ho gayi. Dobara banane mein saalon lagne wale the.

Dobara banane ki aguaai kaun karta? West mein jawab tha USA, jo ab sabse taakatwar economic, political aur military power tha. East mein Soviet Union tha. Uske logon ne Nazi Germany ko haraane ki bahut bhayaanak keemat chukayi thi. Phir bhi 1930s mein, jab capitalist economies depression mein doobi hui thi, usne khud ko ek gareeb kheti wale desh se ek industrial world power bana liya tha. In do diggajon ne war ke baad ki duniya ko shakl di.

4.1 Post-war Settlement aur Bretton Woods Institutions

War ke baad ki duniya ki planning karne walon ne dono wars ke beech ke saalon se do sabak seekhe the:

1. Mass production ko mass consumption chahiye. Factories tabhi banati reh sakti hain jab log khareedte rahein, aur log lagaataar tabhi khareedte hain jab unki income oonchi aur surakshit ho. Surakshit income ke liye sabko lagaataar kaam chahiye, yaani full employment. Akele markets iski guarantee nahi de sakte, isliye governments ko aage aakar prices, output aur jobs ke utaar-chadhaav ko kam karna hoga.
2. Full employment ke liye border par control chahiye. Government jobs ko tabhi bacha sakti hai jab uske paas apne desh mein aane-jaane wale goods, capital aur labour ke flows ko control karne ki power ho.

Baaki sab kuch ek hi goal se nikla: industrial deshon mein lagaataar growth aur sabke liye jobs. Ise haasil karne ka plan July 1944 mein United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference mein tay hua. 44 deshon ke delegates USA ke New Hampshire mein Bretton Woods ke Mount Washington Hotel mein mile. Conference ne do institutions banaye:

• International Monetary Fund (IMF), member deshon ko unke external surpluses aur deficits sambhalne mein madad karne ke liye;
• International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), jise World Bank naam se zyada jaana jaata hai, war ke baad dobara banane ka kharcha uthane ke liye.

Log is jodi ko Bretton Woods institutions ya 'Bretton Woods twins' kehte hain, aur war ke baad ke poore set-up ko Bretton Woods system. Inhone 1947 mein lending shuru ki. Inhe chalata kaun hai? Shuru se hi Western industrial powers faislon ko control karti aayi hain, aur USA dono mein khaas faislon par asal mein veto laga sakta hai. Jaise IMF mein votes is baat par depend karte hain ki har member kitna paisa daalta hai. Sabse important faislon ke liye 85 per cent votes chahiye, aur USA ke paas 15 per cent se zyada hain.

Is system mein paisa kaise kaam karta tha? Exchange rate ek currency ki doosri currency mein keemat hai, aur Bretton Woods ke tehat yeh rates fixed the. US dollar ko $35 per ounce par gold mein badla ja sakta tha, aur har doosre member ki currency, Indian rupee bhi, ki dollars mein ek fixed value tay ki gayi. Is tarah gold dollar ka langar tha, aur dollar baaki sab ka (Fig. 3.15).

4.2 War ke Baad ke Shuruaati Saal

Western industrial deshon aur Japan ke liye agle bees saal ek golden age the. 1950–70 ke teen numbers dekho. World trade har saal 8 per cent se zyada badha aur incomes har saal lagbhag 5 per cent. Zyaadatar industrial deshon mein berozgaari aam taur par 5 per cent se neeche rahi. Utna hi important yeh tha ki growth smooth thi, inter-war saalon ke zabardast booms aur busts ke bina.

In dashakon mein technology aur enterprise bhi duniya bhar mein phaile. Gareeb desh ameer deshon ke saath ka fasla jaldi kam karna chahte the, isliye unhone up-to-date technology wale imported factories aur machines par bahut kharch kiya. India ke Five-Year Plans, jinhone 1950s se steel plants, dams aur heavy industries banaye, isi koshish ka hissa the.

4.3 Decolonisation aur Independence

1945 mein European empires ab bhi Asia aur Africa ke bade hisse par phaile the. Bees saal baad inmein se zyaadatar colonies azaad desh ban chuki thi. India 1947 mein azaad hua aur Ghana 1957 mein, aur sirf 1960 mein hi satrah naye desh, jinmein solah African the, United Nations mein shaamil hue (Table 3.2). Azaadi apne saath daulat nahi laayi. Naye deshon ko virasat mein gareebi aur kam resources mile, aur lambe colonial raaj ne unki economies aur samaajon ko apne purane rulers ki zaroorat ke hisaab se dhaala tha.

Bretton Woods twins ameer industrial economies ki seva ke liye banaye gaye the; purani colonies mein gareebi se ladna unke design ka hissa nahi tha. Unka focus ek seedhi si wajah se badla. Europe aur Japan itni jaldi sambhal gaye ki 1950s ke aakhir tak unhe twins ki madad ki zaroorat hi nahi rahi. Isliye IMF aur World Bank developing countries ki taraf zyada dekhne lage.

Socho iska matlab kya tha. Jo desh abhi-abhi Britain ya France se azaad hua tha, woh ab un institutions se loans aur salaah maang raha tha jinmein Britain, France aur USA ki aawaaz sabse oonchi thi. Kaagaz par azaadi ka matlab hamesha asal mein control nahi tha. Kai purani colonies mein purane rulers ab bhi mines aur plantations ke maalik the ya unhe control karte the. USA jaise taakatwar deshon ki badi companies aksar oil, minerals ya timber nikaalne ka haq bahut saste mein khareed leti thi.

1950s aur 1960s ka boom bhi zyaadatar developing countries ko chhue bina nikal gaya, isliye unhone ek bloc ki tarah mol-bhaav karna chuna. 1964 mein Geneva mein pehli United Nations Conference on Trade and Development mein 77 developing countries ne, jinmein India bhi tha, Group of 77, yaani G-77, banaya. Aaj iske 134 members hain lekin naam wahi purana hai. G-77 ne ek New International Economic Order (NIEO) ki maang ki, jiske liye UN General Assembly ne 1974 ke ek declaration mein aawaaz uthayi. Unke NIEO ki chaar main maangein thi:

• apne natural resources par asli control;
• development ke liye zyada aid;
• apne beche raw materials ke liye sahi daam;
• ameer deshon ke markets mein apne manufactured goods ke liye aasaan entry.

4.4 Bretton Woods ka Khaatma aur 'Globalisation' ki Shuruaat

System ka langar dollar tha, aur 1960s mein yeh langar khisakne laga. America videsh mein bahut kharch kar raha tha, doosri cheezon ke saath wars aur military bases par bhi, aur uski finances aur competitiveness kamzor hui. Duniya bhar mein dollars ke dher lag gaye, itne zyada ki USA unhe kabhi gold mein badal hi nahi sakta tha. Logon ko shak hone laga ki kya sach mein ab bhi $35 mein ek ounce gold mil sakta hai. August 1971 mein US government ne dollars ko gold mein badalna band kar diya, aur 1973 tak fixed rates chhod diye gaye aur currencies float karne lagi.

1970s ke beech mein ek doosra badlaav aaya. Gareeb desh ab loans aur aid ke liye international institutions par bharosa nahi kar sakte the; unhe Western commercial banks aur doosre private lenders se paisa jutaana pada. Iska nateeja tha developing world mein ek ke baad ek debt crises, jaise woh crisis jo 1982 mein shuru hua jab Mexico apna karz nahi chuka paaya. Incomes giri aur gareebi badhi, sabse buri tarah Africa aur Latin America mein.

Ameer industrial desh bhi mushkil mein the. Wahan lagbhag 1975 ke baad berozgaari badhi aur 1990s ki shuruaat tak kam nahi hui. Saste labour ki talaash mein MNCs ne 1970s ke aakhir mein apni factories Asia ke kam wage wale deshon mein shift karna shuru kiya.

1949 ki apni revolution ke baad China war ke baad ki world economy se bahar khada tha. 1978 se yeh badla, jab nayi economic policies ne use foreign trade aur investment ke liye khola. 1989 aur 1991 ke beech Eastern Europe aur Soviet Union mein communist raaj dhah gaya, aur kai aur desh world economy mein wapas jud gaye. World markets ke liye daud rahe videshi MNCs China jaisi jagahon ki taraf khinche, jahan wages kam thi. Apne paas ki kisi dukaan mein TVs, phones aur khilonon ke labels dekho: 'Made in China' baar-baar dikhta hai. Wahan cheezein banana sasta raha hai, sabse badhkar kam wages ki wajah se.

Industry ko kam wage wale deshon mein le jaane se world trade aur capital ke flow ko badhawa mila. India ne 1991 mein bade reforms ke saath apni economy kholi. Pichhle kuch dashakon mein India, China, Brazil aur doosre desh tezi se badle hain, aur duniya ka economic map naye sire se khinch gaya hai. Aaj tum jis globalised world mein rehte ho, woh isi lambi history se nikla hai.